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Managerial cognition and internationalization

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Abstract

How do the senior decision-makers within a multinational enterprise (MNE) think through and determine an internationalization decision? Despite the cognitive foundations of several key constructs, standard internationalization models do not explicitly incorporate managerial cognition. We argue that the boundedly rational decision-maker is underspecified in international business models and this oversight contributes to weak empirical findings on experience, learning, internationalization strategy and MNE performance. Drawing on these extant models, we identify seven knowledge domains and interdependencies that may make up decision-makers’ mental models. Granted rare access to senior executives and board members engaged in a foreign direct investment decision, we find substantial heterogeneity in the mental models these individuals used to make sense of the opportunity. This variance aligns with differences in individuals’ experience along four dimensions: international breadth, depth, diversity and prior strategic decision-making. We argue these cognitive processes – how individuals exercise judgment about information search parameters, assessment and decision integration, and how decision teams coalesce in their thinking – are crucial microfoundations for modeling heterogeneity in firm-level internationalization strategies and performance.

Abstract

Comment les cadres supérieurs d’une firme multinationale (FMN) pensent-ils et déterminent-ils une décision d’internationalisation ? Malgré les bases cognitives de plusieurs construits clés, les modèles standards d'internationalisation n’intègrent pas explicitement la cognition managériale. Nous soutenons que la rationalité limitée des décideurs est trop simplifiée dans les modèles d’affaires internationales et que cette erreur contribue à la faiblesse des résultats empiriques sur l'expérience, l'apprentissage, la stratégie d'internationalisation et la performance des FMN. S’appuyant sur les modèles existants, nous identifions sept domaines de connaissances et leurs interdépendances qui peuvent constituer des modèles mentaux pour les décideurs. Malgré un accès limité aux cadres supérieurs et aux membres des conseils d'administration engagés dans une décision d’investissement direct à l’étranger, nous constatons une forte hétérogénéité dans les modèles mentaux que ces personnes ont utilisés pour justifier l'opportunité d’investir. Cette hétérogénéité s’aligne avec les différences d'expérience des personnes étudiées à quatre niveaux : l’envergure internationale, la profondeur, la diversité et les prises de décision stratégique antérieures. Nous pensons que ces processus cognitifs - comment les individus exercent un jugement sur les paramètres de recherche d'information, d’évaluation et d’intégration de la décision, et comment les équipes de décision unissent leurs réflexions - sont des micro-fondations cruciales pour la modélisation de l’hétérogénéité au niveau de la performance et des stratégies d’internationalisation d’une firme.

Abstract

¿Cómo los altos ejecutivos de una multinacional analizan y determinan una decisión de internacionalización? Aunque existen bases cognitivas para varios constructos clave, los modelos tradicionales de internacionalización no incorporan explícitamente la cognición gerencial. Sostenemos que los límites racionales de los altos ejecutivos no son especificados en los modelos de negocios internacionales, y esta omisión contribuye a debilitar los hallazgos empíricos sobre experiencia, aprendizaje, estrategia de internacionalización y desempeño de las multinacionales. Partiendo de la base de estos modelos existentes, identificamos siete dominios de conocimiento e interdependencias que pueden compensar los modelos mentales de los altos ejecutivos. Basados en el escaso acceso de los altos ejecutivos y miembros de juntas directivas que participan en decisiones sobre inversión extrajera directa, encontramos una heterogeneidad sustancial en los modelos mentales que estos individuos utilizan para dar sentido a las oportunidades. Esta variación se alinea con las diferencias en las experiencias de los individuos en cuatro dimensiones: la amplitud internacionalización, la profundidad, la diversidad y la previa toma de decisiones estratégicas. Sostenemos que estos procesos cognitivos –cómo los individuos ejercen un juicio sobre los parámetros de búsqueda de información, evaluación e integración de decisiones, y cómo los equipos de decisión fusionan su pensamiento- son micro-bases cruciales para el modelado de la heterogeneidad en las estrategias y el desempeño a nivel de la empresa.

Abstract

Como os tomadores de decisão de alto nível dentro de uma empresa multinacional (MNE) analisam e definem uma decisão de internacionalização? Apesar de vários construtos importantes contarem com fundamentos cognitivos, modelos de internacionalização padrão não incorporam de maneira explícita a cognição gerencial. Nós propomos que o tomador de decisão com limitada racionalidade se apresenta subespecificado nos modelos de negócios internacionais, e esse equívoco contribui para achados empíricos fracos a respeito de experiência, aprendizado, estratégia de internacionalização e desempenho de MNE. Com base nesses modelos existentes, identificamos sete domínios de conhecimento e interdependências que podem compor os modelos mentais dos tomadores de decisão. Contando com um raro acesso a altos executivos e membros do conselho envolvidos em uma decisão sobre investimento estrangeiro direto, encontramos uma heterogeneidade substancial nos modelos mentais que esses indivíduos usaram para compreender essa oportunidade. Essa variância se alinha com as diferenças na experiência dos indivíduos ao longo de quatro dimensões: amplitude, profundidade e diversidade internacionais, e decisões estratégicas anteriormente tomadas. Defendemos que esses processos cognitivos - como os indivíduos exercem um juízo sobre os parâmetros de busca de informações, avaliação e integração de decisão, e como as equipes de decisão se integram ao seu pensamento - são micro fundações cruciais para modelar a heterogeneidade das estratégias de internacionalização e do desempenho no nível da firma.

Abstract

跨国企业内的资深决策者如何思考并决定企业的国际化决策?尽管有几个关键构念作为认知基础, 标准的国际化模型并未明确地体现管理认知。我们认为, 有限理性的决策者在国际商务模型中未被详细说明, 而这一疏忽导致了在经验、学习、国际化战略和跨国公司绩效方面实证研究结果较弱。借鉴这些现有模型, 我们找到了可以组成决策者心智模型的七个知识领域及它们的相关性。在与参与了对外直接投资决策的资深管理人员和董事会成员进行了难得的接触后, 我们发现这些个人通常用来理解机会的心智模型有相当的异质性。该差异与这些个人在国际化的宽度、深度、多样性及先前战略决策这四个维度上经历的差异一致。我们认为, 这些认知过程 — 个体如何进行对信息搜索参数、评估及决策整合的判断, 以及决策团队如何合并他们的思路 — 是建立公司层面国际化战略和绩效异质模型非常关键的微观基础。

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Notes

  1. Institutional distance is based on the three pillars of regulatory (formal rules and law), normative (social values) and cognitive (what is taken for granted) institutions. Psychic distance is “the sum of factors preventing the flow of information from and to the market,” including language and cultural differences (Johanson & Vahlne, 1977: 24).

  2. Buckley et al. (2007) found, in a laboratory study, that managers act rationally in shortlisting hypothetical FDI options, but less predictably in their final choice. The mental models behind such results are an exciting avenue for future research.

  3. We have substituted FSAs for O as it is more typical in IB and separable from the location setting and MNE governance/transaction decisions, unlike O.

  4. We use Governance Architecture as a less transactionally specific form of Dunning’s I. Decision-makers may be considering a broad variety of transactional forms, including exports and licensing, not just FDI.

  5. The term mental model can also refer to the small world representations or simplified cognitive representations individuals generate in their mind’s eye of a decision landscape (Johnson-Laird, 2013). We define mental models as knowledge structures for consistency with the sensemaking and behavioral strategy literatures (e.g., Daft & Weick, 1984; Grégoire, Barr, & Shepherd, 2010; Levinthal, 2011).

  6. These data were also used to develop a key events’ and actors’ timeline.

  7. We used Dow’s updated 120 countries version (see https://sites.google.com/site/ddowresearch/home). Data were not available for six countries our respondents had worked in. No respondents had >2 missing countries, such that the country loss was <20% and was unlikely to affect the calculations. By using birth home country, we sought to capture pre-career locational learning opportunities. For all respondents, birth and high school education countries were the same.

  8. Both companies have been labeled pseudonymously and possible identifying information about mine locations has been removed, to comply with the authors’ university research ethics requirements.

  9. The spin-off followed the parent’s decision to narrow its mineral range.

  10. The World Bank’s Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency rated the country as conflict affected and fragile (CAF).

  11. We sought to capture each individual’s mental model specific only to internationalization. Additional figures for the remaining individuals are available from the authors on request.

  12. This measure is designed to be relative, indicating if respondents’ models were richer within a given domain than their colleagues’. We chose the ⩾50% cut-off as the most parsimonious across domains (given there are different numbers of elements from domain to domain) and most consistent with the notion of being more, not less, rich.

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Acknowledgements

The authors thank the editor, Ulf Andersson and the two anonymous referees for their invaluable insights, and Catherine Casler for her research assistance. We also appreciate the helpful comments from Dave Thomas, Marcus Møller Larsen and seminar participants at Bocconi University and IESE.

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Correspondence to André Sammartino.

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Accepted by Ulf Andersson, Area Editor, 15 February 2015. This article has been with the authors for two revisions.

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Maitland, E., Sammartino, A. Managerial cognition and internationalization. J Int Bus Stud 46, 733–760 (2015). https://doi.org/10.1057/jibs.2015.9

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