The relationship between environmental variables, detection probability and site occupancy by Tasmanian nocturnal birds, including the Tasmanian masked owl (Tyto novaehollandiae castanops)
Michael K. Todd A B C , Rodney P. Kavanagh D , Trent D. Penman E , Phil Bell A F and Sarah A. Munks
A B F G
+ Author Affiliations
- Author Affiliations
A School of Natural Sciences, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 5, Hobart, Tas. 7001, Australia.
B Cooperative Research Centre for Forestry, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 12, Hobart, Tas. 7001, Australia.
C Present address: Office of Environment and Heritage, PO Box 318, Buronga, NSW 2739, Australia.
D Australian Wildlife Conservancy, PO Box 4301, Sydney, NSW 2001, Australia.
E Department of Forest and Ecosystem Science, The University of Melbourne, 4 Water Street, Creswick, Vic. 3363, Australia.
F Tasmanian Forest Practices Authority, 30 Patrick Street, Hobart, Tas. 7000, Australia.
G Corresponding author. Email: sarah.munks@fpa.tas.gov.au
Australian Journal of Zoology 66(2) 139-151 https://doi.org/10.1071/ZO17069
Submitted: 29 October 2017 Accepted: 12 September 2018 Published: 15 October 2018
Abstract
Knowledge of the habitat requirements of nocturnal birds is vital for the development of effective conservation strategies. This study is the first intensive systematic survey of the occurrence of the threatened Tasmanian masked owl (Tyto novaehollandiae castanops), the Tasmanian boobook (Ninox leucopsis) and the Australian owlet-nightjar (Aegotheles cristatus) in Tasmania using call playback, spotlighting and listening techniques. Occupancy models were created that explain the spatial distribution of the three species. Temperature and wind influenced the detectability of all species. Detectability of the Tasmanian boobook was also associated with nightlight. The Tasmanian masked owl was most often found in low-elevation mature dry eucalypt forest. This may be related to a combination of availability of nesting sites, food availability and accessibility, and physiological factors. The Australian owlet-nightjar also showed a broad preference for dry eucalypt forest and avoided open country. In contrast, the Tasmanian boobook was most often found in wet eucalypt forest with higher temperatures and fewer roads. We conclude that mature dry and wet forest types at low elevations need to be carefully managed to maintain populations of Tasmania’s nocturnal birds, particularly the threatened Tasmanian masked owl. Consideration should be given to retention of a network of contiguous areas of undisturbed mature forest across forested landscapes.
Additional keywords: habitat preference, nocturnal raptors, occupancy modelling, threatened species.
References
Aliabadian, M., Alaei-Kakhki, N, Mirshamsi, O, Nijman, V, and Roulin, A (2016). Phylogeny, biogeography, and diversification of barn owls (Aves: Strigiformes). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 119, 904–918.| Phylogeny, biogeography, and diversification of barn owls (Aves: Strigiformes).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Anderson, B. W., and Ohmart, R. D. (1981). Comparisons of avian census results using variable distance transect and variable circular plot techniques. In ‘Estimating Numbers of Terrestrial Birds’. (Eds C. J. Ralph, and J. M. Scott.) pp. 186–192. (Cooper Ornithological Society: Kansas.)
Barrett, G., Silcocks, A., Barry, S., Cunningham, R., and Poulter, R. (2003). ‘The New Atlas of Australian Birds.’ (Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union: Melbourne.)
Bart, J., and Forsman, E. D. (1992). Dependence of northern spotted owls Strix occidentalis caurina on old-growth forests in the western USA. Biological Conservation 62, 95–100.
| Dependence of northern spotted owls Strix occidentalis caurina on old-growth forests in the western USA.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bell, P. J., and Mooney, N. (2002). Distribution, habitat and abundance of masked owls (Tyto novaehollandiae) in Tasmania. In ‘Ecology and Conservation of Owls’. (Eds I. Newton, R. Kavanagh, J. Olsen, and I. Taylor.) pp. 125–136. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)
Bell, P., Mooney, N., and Wiersma, J. (1996). Predicting essential habitat for forest owls in Tasmania. Report to the Tasmanian Environment and Heritage Technical Committee, December 1996.
Bennett, P. M., and Harvey, P. H. (1987). Active and resting metabolism in birds, allometry, phylogeny and ecology. Journal of Zoology 213, 327–344.
| Active and resting metabolism in birds, allometry, phylogeny and ecology.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Bolker, B. M., Brooks, M. E., Clark, C. J., Geange, S. W., Poulsen, J. R., Stevens, M. H. H., and White, J. S. (2009). Generalized linear mixed models: a practical guide for ecology and evolution. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 24, 127–135.
| Generalized linear mixed models: a practical guide for ecology and evolution.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Burnham, K. P., and Anderson, D. R. (2002). ‘Model Selection and Multimodal Inference.’ (Springer-Verlag: New York.)
Catling, P. C., and Burt, R. J. (1995). Studies of the ground-dwelling mammals of eucalypt forests in south-eastern New South Wales: the effect of habitat variables on distribution and abundance. Wildlife Research 22, 669–685.
| Studies of the ground-dwelling mammals of eucalypt forests in south-eastern New South Wales: the effect of habitat variables on distribution and abundance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Catling, P. C., Burt, R. J., and Forrester, R. I. (2000). Models of the distribution and abundance of ground-dwelling mammals in the eucalypt forests of north-eastern New South Wales in relation to habitat variables. Wildlife Research 27, 639–654.
| Models of the distribution and abundance of ground-dwelling mammals in the eucalypt forests of north-eastern New South Wales in relation to habitat variables.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Christidis, L., and Boles, W. E. (2008). ‘Systematics and Taxonomy of Australian Birds.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)
Conole, L. E. (1985). The distribution and status of owls (Aves; Strigidae and Tytonidae) in the Geelong–Otway district, Victoria. Geelong Naturalist 22, 3–17.
Debus, S. J. S. (1993). The mainland masked owl, Tyto novaehollandiae: a review. Australian Birdwatcher 15, 168–191.
Debus, S. J. S. (1995). Surveys of large forest owls in northern New South Wales: methodology, calling behaviour and owl responses. Corella 19, 38–50.
Debus, S. J. S. (1997). Vocal behaviour of the southern boobook Ninox novaeseelandiae and 816 other nocturnal birds. In ‘Australian Raptor Studies II’. (Eds G. Czechura, and S. Debus.) pp. 71–85. Birds Australia Monograph 3. (Birds Australia: Melbourne.)
Doak, D. (1989). Spotted owls and old growth logging in the Pacific northwest. Conservation Biology 3, 389–396.
| Spotted owls and old growth logging in the Pacific northwest.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Doran N. E. Balmer J. Driessen M. Bashford R. Grove S. Richardson A. M. M. Griggs J. Ziegeler D. 2003
Doucette, L. I. (2010). Home range and territoriality of Australian owlet-nightjars Aegotheles cristatus in diverse habitats. Journal of Ornithology 151, 673–685.
| Home range and territoriality of Australian owlet-nightjars Aegotheles cristatus in diverse habitats.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Dugger, K. M., Wagner, F., Anthony, R. G., and Olson, G. S. (2005). The relationship between habitat characteristics and demographic performance of northern spotted owls in southern Oregon. The Condor 107, 863–878.
| The relationship between habitat characteristics and demographic performance of northern spotted owls in southern Oregon.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Duncan, J. R. (1997). Great gray owls (Strix nebulosa nebulosa) and forest management in North America: a review and recommendations. The Journal of Raptor Research 31, 160–166.
Fleay, D. (1949). The Tasmanian masked owl. Emu 48, 169–176.
| The Tasmanian masked owl.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Flynn, E., Jones, S., Jones, M., Jordan, G., and Munks, S. A. (2011). Characteristics of mammal communities in Tasmanian forests: exploring the influence of forest type and disturbance history. Wildlife Research 38, 13–29.
| Characteristics of mammal communities in Tasmanian forests: exploring the influence of forest type and disturbance history.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Forest Practices Authority (2012). State of the forests Tasmania 2012. Report to the Minister for Energy and Resources. Forest Practices Authority, Hobart.
Forestry Tasmania (2007a). Forest Class 2005 GIS Layer. Forestry Tasmania, Hobart.
Forestry Tasmania (2007b). Growth Stage 07 GIS Layer. Forestry Tasmania, Hobart.
Forestry Tasmania (2007c). Growth Stage 96 GIS Layer. Forestry Tasmania, Hobart.
Forsman, E. D., Meslow, E. C., and Strub, M. J. (1977). Spotted owl abundance in young versus old-growth forests, Oregon. Wildlife Society Bulletin 5, 43–47.
Franklin, A. B., Anderson, D. R., Gutiérrez, R. J., and Burnham, K. P. (2000). Climate, habitat quality and fitness in northern spotted owl populations in northwestern California. Ecological Monographs 70, 539–590.
| Climate, habitat quality and fitness in northern spotted owl populations in northwestern California.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Garnett, S., Szabo, J., and Dutson, G. (2011). Masked owl (Tasmanian). In ‘The Action Plan for Australian Birds 2010’. pp. 271–272. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)
Gessaman, J. A., Fuller, M. R., Pekins, P. J., and Duke, G. E. (1991). Resting metabolic rate of golden eagles, bald eagles, and barred owls with a tracking transmitter or an equivalent load. The Wilson Bulletin 103, 261–265.
Gibbons, P., and Lindenmayer, D. B. (1997). Developing tree retention strategies for hollow-dependent arboreal marsupials in the wood production eucalypt forests of eastern Australia. Australian Forestry 60, 29–45.
| Developing tree retention strategies for hollow-dependent arboreal marsupials in the wood production eucalypt forests of eastern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Green, R. H., Rainbird, J. L., and McQuillan, P. B. (1986). Food of the southern boobook Ninox novaeseelandiae. Tasmanian Naturalist 86, 1–3.
Gwee, C. Y., Christidis, L, Eaton, J. A., Norman, J. A., Trainor, C. R., Verbelen, P, and Rheindt, F. E. (2017). Bioacoustic and multi-locus DNA data of Ninox owls support high incidence of extinction and recolonisation on small, low-lying islands across Wallacea. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 109, 246–258.
| Bioacoustic and multi-locus DNA data of Ninox owls support high incidence of extinction and recolonisation on small, low-lying islands across Wallacea.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Harris, S., and Kitchener, A. (2005). ‘From Forest to Fjaeldmark: Descriptions of Tasmania’s Vegetation.’ (Department of Primary Industries, Water and Environment: Hobart.)
Higgins, P. J. (1999a). Ninox novaeseelandiae southern boobook. In ‘Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds: Volume 4’. (Ed. P. J. Higgins.) pp. 852–875. (Oxford University Press: Melbourne.)
Higgins, P. J. (1999b). Tyto novaehollandiae masked owl. In ‘Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic Birds: Volume 4’. (Ed. P. J. Higgins.) pp. 908–930. (Oxford University Press: Melbourne.)
Hines, J. E. (2006). Presence 2 – Software to estimate patch occupancy and related parameters. USGS–PWRC.
Hohtola, E., Pyornila, A., and Rintamaki, H. (1994). Fasting endurance and cold resistance without hypothermia in a small predatory bird: the metabolic strategy of Tengmalm’s owl, Aegolius funereus. Journal of Comparative Physiology. B, Biochemical, Systemic, and Environmental Physiology 164, 430–437.
| Fasting endurance and cold resistance without hypothermia in a small predatory bird: the metabolic strategy of Tengmalm’s owl, Aegolius funereus.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Hollands, D. (2008). ‘Owls, Frogmouths and Nightjars of Australia.’ (Bloomings Books: Melbourne.)
Kavanagh, R. P. (1991). The target species approach to wildlife management: gliders and owls in the forests of southeastern New South Wales. In ‘Conservation of Australia’s Forest Fauna’. (Ed. D. Lunney.) pp. 377–383. (The Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales: Sydney.)
Kavanagh, R. P. (1997). Ecology and management of large forest owls in south-eastern Australia. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Sydney.
Kavanagh, R. P. (2002a). Comparative diets of the powerful owl (Ninox strenua), sooty owl (Tyto tenebricosa) and masked owl (Tyto novaehollandiae) in southeastern Australia. In ‘Ecology and Conservation of Owls’. (Eds I. Newton, R. Kavanagh, J. Olsen, and I. Taylor.) pp. 175–191. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)
Kavanagh, R. P. (2002b). Conservation and management of large forest owls in southeastern Australia. In ‘Ecology and Conservation of Owls’. (Eds I. Newton, R. Kavanagh, J. Olsen, and I. Taylor.) pp. 201–219. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)
Kavanagh, R. P., and Bamkin, K. L. (1995). Distribution of nocturnal forest birds and mammals in relation to the logging mosaic in south-eastern New South Wales, Australia. Biological Conservation 71, 41–53.
| Distribution of nocturnal forest birds and mammals in relation to the logging mosaic in south-eastern New South Wales, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kavanagh, R. P., and Murray, M. (1996). Home range, habitat and behaviour of the masked owl Tyto novaehollandiae near Newcastle, New South Wales. Emu 96, 250–257.
| Home range, habitat and behaviour of the masked owl Tyto novaehollandiae near Newcastle, New South Wales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kavanagh, R. P., and Peake, P. (1993a). Distribution and habitats of nocturnal forest birds in south-eastern New South Wales. In ‘Australian Raptor Studies’. (Ed. P. D. Olsen.) pp. 101–125. (Australasian Raptor Association, Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union: Melbourne.)
Kavanagh, R. P., and Peake, P. (1993b). Survey procedures for nocturnal forest birds: an evaluation of variability in census results due to temporal factors, weather and technique. In ‘Australian Raptor Studies’. (Ed. P. D. Olsen.) pp. 86–100. (Australasian Raptor Association, Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union: Melbourne.)
Kavanagh, R. P., and Stanton, M. A. (2002). Response to habitat fragmentation by the powerful owl (Ninox strenua), sooty owl (Tyto tenebricosa), masked owl (Tyto novaehollandiae) and other nocturnal fauna in south-eastern Australia. In ‘Ecology and Conservation of Owls’. (Eds I. Newton, R. Kavanagh, J. Olsen, and I. Taylor.) pp. 242–254. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)
Kavanagh, R. P., and Webb, G. A. (1998). Effects of variable-intensity logging on mammals, reptiles and amphibians at Waratah Creek, southeastern New South Wales. Pacific Conservation Biology 4, 326–347.
| Effects of variable-intensity logging on mammals, reptiles and amphibians at Waratah Creek, southeastern New South Wales.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kavanagh, R. P., Debus, S., Tweedie, T., and Webster, R. (1995). Distribution of nocturnal forest birds and mammals in north-eastern New South Wales: relationships with environmental variables and management history. Wildlife Research 22, 359–377.
| Distribution of nocturnal forest birds and mammals in north-eastern New South Wales: relationships with environmental variables and management history.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Kirkwood, J. K. (1979). The partition of food energy for existence in the kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) and the barn owl (Tyto alba). Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology Part A: Physiology 63, 495–498.
| The partition of food energy for existence in the kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) and the barn owl (Tyto alba).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Koch, A. J., and Baker, S. C. (2011). Using aerial photographs to remotely assess tree hollow availability. Biodiversity and Conservation 20, 1089–1101.
| Using aerial photographs to remotely assess tree hollow availability.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Koch, A. J., Munks, S. A., Driscoll, D., and Kirkpatrick, J. B. (2008a). Does hollow occurrence vary with forest type? A case study in wet and dry Eucalyptus obliqua forest. Forest Ecology and Management 255, 3938–3951.
Koch, A. J., Munks, S. A., and Woehler, E. J. (2008b). Hollow-using vertebrate fauna of Tasmania: distribution, hollow requirements and conservation status. Australian Journal of Zoology 56, 323–349.
| Hollow-using vertebrate fauna of Tasmania: distribution, hollow requirements and conservation status.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Laaksonen, T., Hakkarainen, H., and Korpimaki, E. (2004). Lifetime reproduction of a forest-dwelling owl increases with age and area of forests. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 271, S461–S464.
| Lifetime reproduction of a forest-dwelling owl increases with age and area of forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Liddelow, G. L., Wheeler, I. B., and Kavanagh, R. P. (2002). Owls in the southwest forests of Western Australia. In ‘Ecology and Conservation of Owls’. (Eds I. Newton, R. Kavanagh, J. Olsen, and I. Taylor.) pp. 220–232. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)
Lindenmayer, D. B., Cunningham, R. B., Tanton, M. T., Smith, A. P., and Nix, H. A. (1991). Characteristics of hollow-bearing trees occupied by arboreal marsupials in the montane ash forests of the Central Highlands of Victoria, south-east Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 40, 289–308.
Lindenmayer, D. B., Cunningham, R. B., and Donnelly, C. F. (1994). The conservation of arboreal marsupials in the montane ash forests of the central highlands of Victoria, south-east Australia. VI. Tests of the performance of models of nest tree and habitat requirements of arboreal marsupials. Biological Conservation 70, 143–147.
| The conservation of arboreal marsupials in the montane ash forests of the central highlands of Victoria, south-east Australia. VI. Tests of the performance of models of nest tree and habitat requirements of arboreal marsupials.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Loyn, R. H., McNabb, E. G., Volodina, L., and Willig, R. (2001). Modelling landscape distributions of large forest owls as applied to managing forests in north-east Victoria, Australia. Biological Conservation 97, 361–376.
| Modelling landscape distributions of large forest owls as applied to managing forests in north-east Victoria, Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Loyn, R. H., McNabb, E. G., Volodina, L., and Willig, R. (2002). Modelling distributions of large forest owls as a conservation tool in forest management: a case study from Victoria, southeastern Australia. In ‘Ecology and Conservation of Owls’. (Eds I. Newton, R. Kavanagh, J. Olsen, and I. Taylor.) pp. 242–254. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)
MacDonald, M. (2001). Altitudinal distribution of birds at the Warra LTER site, southern Tasmania: a preliminary study. Tasforests 13, 87–100.
MacKenzie, D. I., Nichols, J. D., Lachman, G. B., Droege, S., Royle, J. A., and Langtimm, C. A. (2002). Estimating site occupancy rates when detection probabilities are less than one. Ecology 83, 2248–2255.
| Estimating site occupancy rates when detection probabilities are less than one.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Mazur, K. M., Frith, S. D., and James, P. C. (1998). Barred owl home range and habitat selection in the boreal forest of central Saskatchewan. The Auk 115, 746–754.
| Barred owl home range and habitat selection in the boreal forest of central Saskatchewan.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McCafferty, D. J., Moncrieff, J. B., and Taylor, I. R. (1997). The effect of wind speed and wetting on thermal resistance of the barn owl (Tyto alba). I. Total heat loss, boundary layer and total resistance. Journal of Thermal Biology 22, 253–264.
| The effect of wind speed and wetting on thermal resistance of the barn owl (Tyto alba). I. Total heat loss, boundary layer and total resistance.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McCafferty, D. J., Moncrieff, J. B., Taylor, I. R., and Boddie, G. F. (1998). The use of IR thermography to measure the radiative temperature and heat loss of a barn owl (Tyto alba). Journal of Thermal Biology 23, 311–318.
| The use of IR thermography to measure the radiative temperature and heat loss of a barn owl (Tyto alba).Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McCafferty, D. J., Moncrieff, J. B., and Taylor, I. R. (2001). How much energy do barn owls (Tyto alba) save by roosting? Journal of Thermal Biology 26, 193–203.
| How much energy do barn owls (Tyto alba) save by roosting?Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
McNabb, E., McNabb, J., and Barker, K. (2003). Post-nesting home range, habitat use and diet of a female masked owl Tyto novaehollandiae in western Victoria. Corella 27, 109–117.
Mees, G. F. (1964). A revision of the Australian owls (Strigidae and Tytonidae). Zoölogische Verhandelingen 65, 1–62.
Meiman, S., Anthony, R. G., Glenn, E. M., Bayless, T., Ellingson, A., Hansen, M. C., and Smith, C. (2003). Effects of commercial thinning on home-range and habitat-use patterns of a male northern spotted owl: a case study. Wildlife Society Bulletin 31, 1254–1262.
Milledge, D. R., Palmer, C. L., and Nelson, J. L. (1991). “Barometers of change”: the distribution of large owls and gliders in mountain ash forest of the Victorian central highlands and their potential as management indicators. In ‘Conservation of Australia’s Forest Fauna’. (Ed. D. Lunney.) pp. 53–65. (Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales: Sydney.)
Mooney, N. (1992). Diet of the masked owl in Tasmania. Tasmanian Bird Report 21, 35–55.
Mooney, N. (1997). Habitat and seasonality of nesting masked owls in Tasmania. In ‘Australian Raptor Studies II’. (Eds G. Czechura, and S. Debus.) pp. 34–39. Birds Australia Monograph 3. (Australasian Raptor Association, Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union: Melbourne.)
Munks, S., Wapstra, M., Corkrey, R., Otley, H., Miller, G., and Walker, B. (2007). The occurrence of potential tree hollows in the dry eucalypt forests of south-eastern Tasmania, Australia. Australian Zoologist 34, 22–36.
Neave, H. M., Cunningham, R. B., Norton, T. W., and Nix, H. A. (1996a). Biological inventory for conservation evaluation. III. Relationships between birds, vegetation and environmental attributes in southern Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 85, 197–218.
| Biological inventory for conservation evaluation. III. Relationships between birds, vegetation and environmental attributes in southern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Neave, H. M., Norton, T. W., and Nix, H. A. (1996b). Biological inventory for conservation evaluation. II. Composition, functional relationships and spatial prediction of bird assemblages in southern Australia. Forest Ecology and Management 85, 123–148.
| Biological inventory for conservation evaluation. II. Composition, functional relationships and spatial prediction of bird assemblages in southern Australia.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service (1994). Fauna of north-east NSW forests. North-east forests biodiversity report no. 3. NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service.
Olsen, J. (2011). ‘Australian High Country Owls.’ (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)
Olsen, P., and Bartos, R. (1997). Home range of a southern boobook Ninox novaeseelandiae near Canberra, ACT. In ‘Australian Raptor Studies II’. (Eds G. Czechura, and S. Debus.) p. 125. (Birds Australia: Melbourne.)
Peake, P., Conole, L. E., Debus, S. J. S., McIntyre, A., and Bramwell, M. (1993). The masked owl Tyto novaehollandiae in Victoria. Australian Bird Watcher 15, 124–136.
Pyke, G. H., and Recher, H. F. (1985). Estimated forest bird densities by variable distance point counts. Australian Wildlife Research 12, 307–319.
| Estimated forest bird densities by variable distance point counts.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Ratkowsky, A. V., and Ratkowsky, D. A. (1978). A survey of the birds of the Mt Wellington Range, Tasmania, during the non-breeding months. Emu 78, 223–226.
| A survey of the birds of the Mt Wellington Range, Tasmania, during the non-breeding months.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Riley, S. J., DeGloria, S. D., and Elliot, R. (1999). A terrain ruggedness index that quantifies topographic heterogeneity. Intermountain Journal of Sciences 5, 23–27.
Scotts, D. J. (1991). Old-growth forests: their ecological characteristics and value to forest-dependent vertebrate fauna of south-east Australia. In ‘Conservation of Australia’s Forest Fauna’. (Ed. D. Lunney.) pp. 147–159. (The Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales: Sydney.)
Smith, R. B., Peery, M. Z., Gutierrez, R. J., and Lahaye, W. S. (1999). The relationship between spotted owl diet and reproductive success in the San Bernardino Mountains, California. The Wilson Bulletin 111, 22–29.
Soderquist, T. R., Lowe, K. W., Loyn, R. H., and Price, R. (2002). Habitat quality in powerful owl (Ninox strenua) territories in the box–ironbark forest of Victoria, Australia. In ‘Ecology and Conservation of Owls’. (Eds I. Newton, R. Kavanagh, J. Olsen, and I. Taylor.) pp. 91–99. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)
Stephens, H. C., Baker, S. C., Potts, B. M., Munks, S. A., Stephens, D., and O’Reilly-Wapstra, J. M. (2012). Short-term responses of native rodents to aggregated retention in old growth wet Eucalyptus forests. Forest Ecology and Management 267, 18–27.
| Short-term responses of native rodents to aggregated retention in old growth wet Eucalyptus forests.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Stone, M. (1998). Forest-type mapping by photo-interpretation: a multi-purpose base for Tasmania’s forest management. Tasforests 10, 1–15.
Taylor, I. R., Kirsten, I., and Peake, P. (2002). Distribution and habitat of barking owls (Ninox connivens) in central Victoria. In ‘Ecology and Conservation of Owls’. (Eds I. Newton, R. Kavanagh, J. Olsen, and I. Taylor.) pp. 107–115. (CSIRO Publishing: Melbourne.)
Todd, M. K. (2012). Ecology and habitat of a threatened nocturnal bird, the Tasmanian masked owl. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Tasmania, Hobart.
Todd, M. K., Kavanagh, R. P., Bell, P., and Munks, S. A. (2017). Calling behaviour of the Tasmanian masked owl Tyto novaehollandiae castanops Australian Zoologist 39, 449–463.
Verner, J., Gutierrez, J. E., and Gould, G. I. (1992). The California spotted owl: general biology and ecological relations. USDA Pacific Southwest Research Station, Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR 133: 55–77.
Wijnandts, H. (1983). Ecological energetics of the long-eared owl Asio otus. Ardea 72, 1–92.
Wintle, B. A., McCarthy, M. A., Parris, K. M., and Burgman, M. A. (2004). Precision and bias of methods for estimating point survey detection probabilities. Ecological Applications 14, 703–712.
| Precision and bias of methods for estimating point survey detection probabilities.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Wintle, B. A., Elith, J., and Potts, J. M. (2005a). Fauna habitat modelling and mapping: a review and case study in the Lower Hunter Central Coast region of NSW. Austral Ecology 30, 719–738.
Wintle, B. A., Kavanagh, R. P., McCarthy, M. A., and Burgman, M. A. (2005b). Estimating and dealing with detectability in occupancy surveys for forest owls and arboreal marsupials. Journal of Wildlife Management 69, 905–917.
| Estimating and dealing with detectability in occupancy surveys for forest owls and arboreal marsupials.Crossref | GoogleScholarGoogle Scholar |
Young, D. (2006). Home range, habitat use and diet of two Tasmanian masked owls Tyto novaehollandiae castanops. B.Sc.(Honours) Thesis, University of Tasmania, Hobart.
