THE CONTRADICTIONS OF PROGRESS: REFLECTIONS ON THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND THE DISCOURSE OF DEVELOPMENT

N. Stepan, Beginnings of Brazilian Science: Oswaldo Cruz, Medical Research and Policy, 1890-1920, New York, Science History Publications, 1982; see also her The Idea of Race in Science: Great Britain, 1800-1960, London, Macmillan, 1976.

Adas M.. 1989. . Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology and Ideologies of Western Dominance . , Ithaca : : Cornell University Press. .

Clark N.. 1985. . The Political Economy of Science and Technology . , Oxford : : Basil Blackwell. .

Foucault M.. 1972. . The Archaeology of Knowledge . , Edited by: Sheridan-Smith A. M.. London : : Tavistock Publications. .

F. Braudel, ‘The Expansion of Europe and the longue durée’, in H.L. Wesseling (ed.), Expansion and Reaction: Essays on European Expansion and Reaction in Asia and Africa, Leiden, Leiden University Press, 1978, pp. 17–27.

G. Canguilhem, Études d'histoire et de philosophie des sciences, Paris, 1968; T. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago, University of Chicago Press, 1970.

Pacey A.. 1983. . The Culture of Technology . , Oxford : : Basil Blackwell. .

G. Basalla, The Rise of Modern Science: Internal or External Factors? Problems in European Civilisation, Lexington, Mass., D.C. Heath, 1968; R. MacLeod, ‘Changing Perspectives in the Social History of Science,’ in D. de Solla Price and I. Spiegel-Rösing (eds), Science, Technology and Society, London, Sage Publications, 1977, pp. 149–195.

S. N. Eisenstadt, ‘Conditions Conducive to the Development of Cultural and Scientific Institutions,’ in E. Tal and Y. Ezrahi (eds), Science Policy and Development: The Case of Israel, Jerusalem, National Council for Research and Development, 1972, pp. 23–37; and S.N. Eisenstadt (ed.), Patterns of Modernity: Vol 1: The West; Vol 2: Beyond the West, London, Pinter, 1987.

Moorehead A. M.. 1966. . The Fatal Impact: An Account of the Invasion of the South Pacific, 1767-1840 . , London : : Hamilton. .

J. D. Bernal, Science in History, London, C. A. Watts, 1954; S.F. Mason, A History of the Sciences, New York: Collier, 1956; A.R. Hall, The Scientific Revolution, 1500-1800: The Formation of the Modern Scientific Attitude, London, Longmans, 1954, 1962; R.S. Westfall, The Construction of Modern Science: Mechanisms and Mechanics, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1971.

Worsley P.. 1964. . The Third World . , London : : Weidenfeld and Nicolson. .

N. Clark, op. cit.; W.W Rostow, The Stages of Economic Growth: A Non-Communist Manifesto, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1960; A. G. Frank, Dependent Accumulation and Underdevelopment, London, Macmillan, 1978; W. Rodney, How Europe Underdeveloped Africa, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Publishing House, 1971; A.O. Herrera, Ciencia y politica en America Latina, Mexico City and Buenos Aires, Siglo XXI, 1971; F.R. Sagasti, ‘Underdevelopment, Science and Technology: The Point of View of the Underdeveloped Countries,’ Social Studies of Science, 3, 1, 1973, pp. 47–59.

For an introduction to the subject, see J. Needham, The Grand Titration: Science and Society in East and West, London, Allen and Unwin, 1979; C.A. Ronan and J. Needham, The Shorter Science and Civilisation in China, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1978.

P. Dharmapal, Indian Science and Technology in the Eighteenth Century, New Delhi, Impex, 1971; A. J. Qaisar, The Indian Response to European Technology and Culture A.D. 1498-1707, Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1982; J. Uberoi, Science and Culture, New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1978.

S. Nasr, Science and Civilisation in Islam, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1968 and Islamic Science: An Illustrated Study, London, World of Islam Festival, 1976.

M. Hechter, Internal Colonialism: The Celtic Fringe in British National Development, 1636-1966, London, Routledge, Kegan Paul, 1975.

F. Braudel, Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II, New York, Harper and Row, Vol. 1, 1972; Vol. 2, 1973.

A large literature awaits the student interested in the wider question of human migration and settlement in prehistoric Africa, Mesopotamia, Europe, and Asia, and (within Europe) between Scandinavia, middle Europe, the Mediterranean and the British Isles. For an introduction and bibliography, see W. McNeill, A World History, New York, 1967.

D. K. Fieldhouse, Economics and Empire, 1830-1914, London, Macmillan, reprinted 1984.

Scammell G. V.. 1989. . The First Imperial Age: European Overseas Expansion, c.1400–1715 . , London : : Unwin Hyman. .

Parry J. H.. 1969. . Europe and a Wider World, 1415-1715 . , 3rd ed. , London : : Hutchinson. .

O.H.K. Spate, The Spanish Lake: Vol I: The Pacific Since Magellan, Canberra, Australian National University Press, 1979; A.W. Crosby Jr., The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492, Westport, Conn., Greenwood Press, 1972; G. Blainey, The Great See-Saw: A New View of the Western World, 1750-2000, South Melbourne, Macmillan, 1988; J.D. Tracey (ed.), The Rise of Merchant Empires: Long Distance Trade in the Early Modern World, 1350-1750, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990.

Barraclough G.. 1954. . ‘Metropolis and Macrocosms: Europe and the Wider World, 1492-1939,’. . Past and Present . , Vol. 5:: 77––93. . The Capitalist World Economy

Lewis B.. 1982. . The Muslim Discovery of Europe . , London : : Weidenfeld and Nicolson. .

M. Adas, op. cit.

Sarton G.. 1948. . The Life of Science: Essays in the History of Civilisation . , New York : : Henry Schuman. .

Sardar Z.. 1977. . Science, Technology and Development in the Muslim World . , London : : Croom Helm. . Explorations in Islamic Science

Cipolla C. M.. 1970. . European Culture and Overseas Expansion . , Harmondsworth : : Penguin. .

Boxer C. R.. 1969. . The Portuguese Seaborne Empire, 1415-1825 . , New York : : Knopf. .

C. Hill, The World Turned Upside Down, London, Temple Smith Publications, 1972; D. Dickson, ‘Science and Political Hegemony in the 17th Century’, Radical Science Journal, 8, 1979, pp. 7–37; M. Hunter, Science and Society in Restoration England, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1981.

H. Kearney, Science and Change, 1500-1700, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1971; D. Knight, The Nature of Science: The History of Science in Western Culture since 1600, London, André Deutsch, 1977.

Ravetz J. R.. 1971. . Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems . , Oxford : : Clarendon Press. . The Great InstaurationFrom Humanism to Science 1480-1700

Parry J. H.. 1963. . The Age of Reconnaisance: Discovery, Exploration and Settlement, 1450-1650 . , London : : Weidenfeld and Nicolson. .

P.D Curtin, Cross-Cultural Trade in World History, New York, Cambridge University Press, 1984; K. Andrews, Trade, Plunder and Settlement: Maritime Enterprise and the Genesis of the British Empire, 1480-1630, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1984.

D. S. Landes, The Unbound Prometheus: Technological Change and Industrial Development in Western Europe from 1760 to the Present, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1969.

Berman M.. 1978. . Social Change and Scientific Organisation: The Royal Institution, 1799-1844 . , London : : Heinemann. . The Idea of Progress in 18th Century Britain

Adas, op. cit.

Headrick D. R.. 1979. . ‘The Tools of Imperialism: Technology and the Expansion of European Colonial Empires in the Nineteenth Century’. . Journal of Modern History . , Vol. 51:: 231––63. .

Curtin, op. cit. and Death by Migration: Europe's Encounter with the Tropical World in the Nineteenth Century, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1990; R. Robinson and J. Gallagher, Africa and the Victorians, London, Macmillan, 1961; R. Graham, Britain and the Onset of Modernisation in Brazil, 1850-1914, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1968.

A. Calder, Revolutionary Empire. The Rise of the English-Speaking Empires from the Fifteenth Century to the 1780's, London, Cape, 1981.

Bowler J.. 1990. . The Invention of Progress: The Victorians and the Past . , Oxford : : Basil Blackwell. .

S. Amin, Unequal Development: An Essay on the Social Formations of Peripheral Capitalism, Hassocks, Harvester, 1976; E. Baark et al., Technological Change and Cultural Impact in Asia and Europe: A Critical Review of the Western Theoretical Heritage, University of Lund, Research Policy Institute, 1980.

I. B. Cohen, ‘The New World as a Source of Science for Europe’, Actes du IXéme Congrès International d'Histoire des Sciences, Barcelona-Madrid, Hermann, 1959, pp. 95–126.

M. Archer, ‘India and Natural History: The Role of the East India Company, 1785-1858’, History Today, IX, 11, 1959, pp. 736–743; D Miller, ‘Sir Joseph Banks: An Historiographical Perspective’, History of Science, XIX, 1981, pp. 284–292; R. MacLeod and P.F. Rehbock (eds), ‘Nature in its Greatest Extent’: Western Science in the Pacific, Honolulu, University of Hawaii Press, 1988.

B. Latour, Science in Action: How to Follow Scientists and Engineers, Cambridge, Mass., Harvard University Press, 1987; Miller, op. cit.

Headrick D. R.. 1988. . Tentacles of Progress Technology Transfer in the Age of Imperialism . , New York : : Oxford University Press. .

K. E. Knorr, British Colonial Theories, 1570-1850, Toronto, University of Toronto Press, 1944, reprinted London, Frank Cass, 1963; Kubicek, op. cit., 1969.

MacKenzie J. M.. 1988. . The Empire of Nature: Hunting, Conservation and British Imperialism . , Manchester : : Manchester University Press. .

R. P. Stearns, Science in the British Colonies of North America, Urbana, University of Illinois Press, 1970; M. Roche, ‘The Early History of Science in Spanish America’, Science, 194, 1976, pp. 806–810; I.H.W. Engstrand, Spanish Scientists in the New World, Seattle, University of Washington Press, 1981.

Ashby E. and Anderson M.. 1966. . Universities: British, Indian, African: A Study in the Ecology of Higher Education . , London : : Weidenfeld and Nicolson. . Universities Quarterly

Kohlstedt S. G.. 1976. . The Formation of the American Scientific Community . , Urbana : : Illinois University Press. . The Commonwealth of Science: ANZAAS and the Scientific Enterprise in Australasia

Levere T. and Jarrell R.. 1974. . A Curious Field Book Science and Society in Canadian History . , Toronto : : Oxford University Press. .

Sinclair B.. 1974. . Let Us be Honest and Modest: Technology and Society in Canadian History . , Toronto : : Oxford University Press. . Dominions Apart: Science and Technology in the Invention of Australia and Canada

Pyenson L.. 1985. . Cultural Imperialism and Exact Sciences: German Expansion Overseas, 1900-1930 . , New York : : Peter Lang. . The German Colonial Empire

A. Calmette, ‘Les Missions scientifiques de l'Institut Pasteur et l'expression coloniale de la France,’ Revue Scientifique, 89, 1912, p. 129; Pyenson, op. cit.; A. Marcovich, ‘French Colonial Medicine and Colonial Rule: Algeria and Indochina’, in R. MacLeod and M. Lewis (eds), Disease, Medicine and Empire, London, Routledge, 1988, pp. 103–119.

Searle G. R.. 1971. . The Quest for National Efficiency . , Oxford : : Blackwell. . Imperialism and Conservation

Thornton A. P.. 1959. . The Imperial Idea and its Enemies . , London : : Macmillan. . Doctrines of Imperialism

J. A. Hobson, Imperialism: A Study, London, George Allen and Unwin, 1902; 6th impression, 1961; V.I. Lenin, Imperialism: The Highest Stage of Capitalism, Moscow, Progress Publishers, 1917, 1923, 1947; 11th impression, 1963; New York: International Publishers, 1933, 1939; W.J. Mommsen, Theories of Imperialism, trans, by Ps. Falla, London, Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1981; J.C. Wood, British Economists and the Empire, London, Croom Helm, 1983; N. Etherington, Theories of Imperialism: War, Conquest and Capital, London, Croom Helm, 1985.

Rhodes R.. 1970. . Imperialism and Underdevelopment . , New York : : Monthly Review. .

C. Limoges, ‘The Development of the Muséum d'Histoire Naturelle of Paris, c.1800–1914’, in R. Fox and G. Weisz (eds), The Organisation of Science and Technology in France, 1808-1914, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1980, pp. 211–40; S. Sheets-Pyenson, Cathedrals of Science: The Development of Colonial Natural History Museums during the Late Nineteenth Century, Montreal, McGill-Queen's University Press, 1988.

Semmel B.. 1960. . Imperialism and Social Reform: English Social-Imperial Thought, 1895-1914 . , London : : George Allen and Unwin. . op. cit.

Wittfogel K. A.. 1957. . Oriental Despotism: A Comparative Study of Total Power . , New Haven : : Yale University Press. .

Saul S. B.. 1960. . Studies in British Overseas Trade . , Liverpool : : Liverpool University Press. . Industry and Empire: An Economic History of Britain since 1750

R. Robinson and J. Gallagher, ‘The Imperialism of Free Trade,’ Economic History Review, 2nd series, 6, 1, 1953, pp. 1–15; T. Smith, The Pattern of Imperialism. The United States, Great Britain, and the Late-industrialising World since 1815, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1981.

Kennedy P.. 1988. . The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers: Economic Change and Military Conflict from 1500-2000 . , New York : : Random House. .

It is instructive that the social history of science, with its emphasis upon the comparative culture and ‘humanities’ of science, dated similarly from this period. See R. MacLeod, ‘Changing Perspectives in the Social History of Science’, in D. de Solla Price and I. Spiegel-Rösing (eds), op. cit.

MacLeod R.. 1990. . “‘Passages of Imperial Science: From Empire to Commonwealth’. ”. In Transfer and Transformation: Professional Institutions in the Commonwealth: Essays on the Fortieth Anniversary of the Institute of Commonwealth Studies . , Edited by: Marks S.. London : : University of London. .

I. R. Sinai, The Challenge of Modernisation: The West's Impact on the Non-Western World, London, Chatto & Windus, 1965; J. Baranson, ‘Role of Science and Technology in Advancing Development of Newly Industrialised States’, Socio-Economic Planning of Science, 3, 1969; T.O. Eisemon, ‘The Implementation of Science in Nigeria and Kenya’, Minerva, 12, 4, 1979, pp. 504–526; M.E. Chamberlain, Decolonisation: The Fall of the European Empires, Oxford, Black well, 1985.

A. Salam, ‘The Isolation of the Scientist in Developing Countries’, Minerva, 4, 4, 1966, pp. 461–465, reprinted in E. Shils (ed.), Criteria for Scientific Development: Public Policy and National Goals, Cambridge, Mass., MIT Press, 1968; C. Nader and A.B. Zahlan (eds), Science Development: The Building of Science in less Developed Countries, Bloomington, Indiana, International Development Research Center, 1975.

Hind R. J.. 1984. . ‘The Internal Colonial Concept’. . Comparative Studies in Society and History . , Vol. 26:: 543––68. .

O. Sunkel, ‘Underdevelopment, the Transfer of Science and Technology and the Latin American University’, Human Relations, 24, 1971, pp. 1–18; F. Suárez, Los Economistas Argentinos: El Proceso de institucionalización de nuevas profesiones, Buenos Aires, Editorial Universitaria de Buenos Aires, 1975.

de Solla Price D. J.. 1961. . Science Since Babylon . , New Haven : : Yale University Press. .

Rahman A.. 1979. . ‘Science, Technology and Development in a New Social Order’. . Science and Public Policy . , Vol. 6((1)): 12––24. .

Rahman's enduring legacy to Indian scholarship lies not only in scores of books and articles, but also in the National Institute for Science, Technology and Development, a division of CSIR in New Delhi, and particularly its unique historical branch, now directed by Dr. Deepak Kumar.

Alam A.. 1978. . ‘Imperialism and Science’. . Race and Class . , Vol. 19((3)): 1––13. .

There is a voluminous literature on the history of American science. The most comprehensive work is R. Bruce, The Launching of Modern American Science, 1846-76, New York, Knopf, 1987. But in addition to the works suggested in the text, see also N. Reingold (ed.), Science in America since 1820, New York, Science History Publications, 1976; W. Goetzman, Exploration and Empire: The Explorer and the Scientist in the Winning of the American West, New York, Knopf, 1966; G. Daniels, American Science in the Age of Jackson, New York, Columbia University Press 1968; R. Kargon (ed.), The Maturing of American Science, Washington, DC, American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1974; H Kragh, On Science and Underdevelopment, Roskilde, Roskilde Universitetsforlag, 1980.

MacLeod, 1977, op. cit.

M. Hoare, and L.G. Bell (eds), ‘In Search of New Zealand's Scientific Heritage’, Bulletin of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 21, 1984; R. MacLeod, ‘On Visiting the “Moving Metropolis”: Reflections on the Architecture of Imperial Science’, Historical Records of Australian Science, 5, 3, 1982, pp.1–16, reprinted in N. Reingold and M. Rothenberg (eds), Scientific Colonialism: A Cross-Cultural Comparison, Washington, DC, Smithsonian Institution Press, 1989, pp.217–249; I. Inkster, ‘Scientific Enterprise and the Colonial “Model”: Observations on Australian Experience in a Historical Context’, Social Studies of Science, 15, 4, 1986, pp. 677–704; R.A. Jarrell, ‘Differential National Development in the Nineteenth Century: The Problems of Quebec and Ireland’, in N. Reingold and M. Rothenberg (eds), op. cit., pp. 323–350; D.W. Chambers, ‘Period and Process in Colonial and National Science’, in Reingold and Rothenberg (eds), op. cit., pp.297-321; A. La Fuente and J. Sala Catalá, ‘Ciencia Colonial y Roles Professionals en la America Española del Siglo XVIII’, Quipu, 6, 1989, pp. 387–403; S. Yearley, ‘Colonial Science and Dependent Development: The Case of the Irish Experience’, The Sociological Review, 37, 1989, pp. 308–331.

MacLeod, 1982, op. cit.

N. Stepan, 1976, op. cit.; K. Raj, ‘Hermeneutics and Cross-Cultural Communication in Science: The Reception of Western Scientific Ideas in 19th century India’, Revue de Synthèse, IV, 1-2, 1986, pp. 107–120.

Pyenson, op. cit.; MacLeod, 1992, op. cit.

R. MacLeod and D. Kumar, (eds) Technology and the Raj (forthcoming).

D. Struik (ed.) The Origins of American Science in New England, New York, Cameron, 1957 and ‘Early Colonial Science in North America and Mexico’, Quipu, 1984, pp. 25ff; B. Hindle, The Pursuit of Science in Revolutionary America, 1735-1789, Chapel Hill, University of North Carolina Press, 1956.

Raina D. and Habib S. I.. 1990. . ‘Ramchandra's Treatise through “The Haze of the Golden Sunset”: An Aborted Pedagogy’. . Social Studies of Science . , Vol. 20((3)): 455––72. . Organising for Science

MacLeod, 1982, op. cit. and 1988, op. cit.

D. W. Chambers, ‘Locality and Science: Myths of Centre and Periphery’, Conference on Science and the Discovery of America, Madrid, 1991.

W Woodruff, The Impact of Western Man: A Study of Europe's Role in the World Economy, 1750-1960, London, Macmillan, 1966; K. Mendelssohn, Science and Western Domination, London, Thames and Hudson, 1976; A. G. Frank, Dependent Accumulation and Underdevelopment, London, Macmillan, 1978.

C.P. Timmer et al. The Choice of Technology in Developing Countries: Some Cautionary Tales, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Center for International Affairs, Harvard University, 1975; A. Robinson (ed.), Appropriate Technologies for Third World Development, London, Macmillan, 1979; N. Rosenberg and L. Birdzell, How the West Grew Rich, New York, Basic Books, 1986.

F. R. Sagasti, ‘Reinterpreting the Concept of Development from a Science and Technology Perspective’, in E. Baark and U. Svedin (eds), Man, Nature and Technology: Essays on the Role of Ideological Perceptions, London, Macmillan, 1988, pp. 37–56.

Ibid.

Goonatilake S.. 1982. . ‘Colonies: Scientific Expansion (and Contraction)’. . Review . , Vol. V((3)): 413––436. .

But compare his recent volume on The Evolution of Technology, New York, Cambridge University Press, 1989, which offers a similar, linear, sequential, and almost teleological interpretation of technological development.

Using a simplified organic analogy, the diffusion of technology has been compared to the spread of an infection. The means and mode --- the ‘vector’ of infection --- may vary, according to the disease; pre-innoculation may incline a population to receive the infection, and tolerate the disease. See I. Inkster, ‘Meiji Economic Development in Perspective: Revisionist Comments upon the Industrial Revolution in Japan’, The Developing Economies, 17, 1, 1979, pp. 45–68.

Moyal A.. 1986. . A Bright and Savage Land’: Scientists in Colonial Australia . , Sydney : : Collins. .

Hartz L.. 1964. . The Founding of New Societies: Studies in the History of the United States, Latin America, South Africa, Canada and Australia . , New York : : Harcourt Brace. .

MacLeod and Kumar (eds), op. cit.; MacLeod and Jarrell (eds), op. cit.

R. Ramasubban, ‘Imperial Health in British India, 1857-1900’, in MacLeod and Lewis (eds), op. cit.

Headrick, 1988, op. cit.

Ibid.

Ibid.

MacLeod and Kumar (eds), op. cit.

Headrick, 1988, op. cit.

Ibid.

J. I. Nakamura, Industrialisation of Japan, Tokyo, Centre for East Asian Cultural Studies, 1963 and Agricultural Production and the Economic Development of Japan, 1873-1922, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1966; M. Yuasa, ‘Scientific Revolution in Nineteenth Century Japan’, Japanese Studies in the History of Science, 2, 1963; J. Bartholomew, ‘Japanese Modernisation and the Imperial Universities, 1876-1920’, Journal of Asian Studies, 37, 1978, pp. 251–271.

Inkster, 1979, op. cit.

Ibid.

J. I. Nakamura, 1966, op. cit.; J.W. Hall, ‘The New Look of Tokugawa History’, in J.W. Hall and M.B. Jansen (eds), Studies in the Institutional History of Early Modern Japan, Princeton, Princeton University Press, 1968.

Inkster, 1979, op. cit.

Alvares C.. 1979. . Homo Faber: Technology and Culture in India, China and the West, 1500-1972 . , Bombay : : Allied Publishers. .

As the word ‘ethnoscience’ has a specific anthropological meaning, ‘traditional sciences’ may be preferred. See the papers arising from the conference on the ‘Science of the Pacific Island Peoples’, University of the South Pacific, Suva, July 1992.

A. Nandy, ‘Definance and Conformity in Science: The Identity of Jagadis Chandra Bose’, Social Studies of Science, 2, 1, 1972, pp. 31–86; Alternative Sciences, New Delhi, Allied Publishers, 1980; Traditions, Tyranny and Utopias, New Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1987, p. 112.

Independent Monthly, Sydney, August 1990, p. 31.

In this respect, the project of Patrick Petitjean, ‘Science and Empires: European Expansion and Scientific Traditions’ (CNRS, Paris, from 1988), and conferences held under its auspices, are of the greatest interest.

R. MacLeod, 1982, op. cit.

See T.E Glick, ‘La Transferencía de las revoluciones científicas à través de la fronteras culturales’, Ciencia y Desarrollo, Mexico, XII, 72, 1987, pp. 77–89.

R. Henry, ‘Agriculture and the Raj’, in MacLeod and Kumar (eds), op. cit.

Cooper C.. 1971. . ‘Science, Technology and Development’. . The Economic and Social Review . , Vol. 2((2)): 165––189. .

A useful step in this direction was recently taken by the Ford Foundation, in sponsoring a conference of teachers on ‘Understanding the Natural World: Science Cross-culturally Considered’, Amherst, Mass., June, 1991.

D.M. Bose et al, A Concise History of Science in India, New Delhi, Indian National Science Academy, 1971; J. S. Sharma, Knowledge: Its Origin and Growth from the Earliest Times to the Present, New Delhi, Sterling Publishers, 1978; MacLeod and Kumar, op. cit.

Sardar, op. cit.

Salam, op. cit.

See J. Saldaña, Cross Cultural Diffusion of Science: Latin America: Cuadernos de Quipu, México DF, Sociedad Latinoamerica de las Ciencias y la Technología, 1988.

America en la formación de un mundo nuevo: 500 años de intercambios científicos’, Congreso Latinoamericano de Historia de la Ciencia y de la Technología, Ciudad de México, 1992.