X-ray Crystallography of Surfaces and Interfaces

X-ray crystallographic studies of surface structure have a much shorter history than the IUCr (and crystallography in general) because it is a technique that requires very intense sources of X-rays. It did not become widely practiced until synchrotron-radiation user facilities became established in the 1980s. Since then it has grown steadily to the point that it is now one of the best trusted methods in determining the structures of surfaces and interfaces. This article will emphasize the differences between two- and three-dimensional crystallography and will be illustrated with some examples of important surfaces.