• boxing
• chronic traumatic encephalopathy
• apolipoprotein E ε-4 gene

Chronic traumatic brain injury or chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) is considered by some authorities to be the most serious health problem in modern day boxing.¹ The condition is often referred to by a number of names in the medical and non-medical literature including dementia pugilistica and “punch drunk” syndrome.

Whilst there exists great controversy regarding the ethics of boxing, one of the key medical issues is the risk of a boxer developing CTE either during or after his boxing career. Recent evidence suggests that exposure to boxing alone is insufficient to cause this condition.

It is believed that CTE represents the cumulative long term neurological consequences of repetitive concussive and sub concussive blows to the head.^1–,⁴ CTE is more common in professional rather than amateur boxers, however, CTE has been documented in other sports such as American …