Abstract
We present a fully automatic framework that digitizes a complete 3D head with hair from a single unconstrained image. Our system offers a practical and consumer-friendly end-to-end solution for avatar personalization in gaming and social VR applications. The reconstructed models include secondary components (eyes, teeth, tongue, and gums) and provide animation-friendly blendshapes and joint-based rigs. While the generated face is a high-quality textured mesh, we propose a versatile and efficient polygonal strips (polystrips) representation for the hair. Polystrips are suitable for an extremely wide range of hairstyles and textures and are compatible with existing game engines for real-time rendering. In addition to integrating state-of-the-art advances in facial shape modeling and appearance inference, we propose a novel single-view hair generation pipeline, based on 3D-model and texture retrieval, shape refinement, and polystrip patching optimization. The performance of our hairstyle retrieval is enhanced using a deep convolutional neural network for semantic hair attribute classification. Our generated models are visually comparable to state-of-the-art game characters designed by professional artists. For real-time settings, we demonstrate the flexibility of polystrips in handling hairstyle variations, as opposed to conventional strand-based representations. We further show the effectiveness of our approach on a large number of images taken in the wild, and how compelling avatars can be easily created by anyone.
Supplemental Material
- Louis Bavoil and Kevin Myers. 2008. Order independent transparency with dual depth peeling. (2008).Google Scholar
- Thabo Beeler, Bernd Bickel, Paul Beardsley, Bob Sumner, and Markus Gross. 2010. High-Quality Single-Shot Capture of Facial Geometry. ACM Trans. on Graphics (Proc. SIGGRAPH) 29, 3 (2010). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Thabo Beeler, Bernd Bickel, Gioacchino Noris, Steve Marschner, Paul Beardsley, Robert W. Sumner, and Markus Gross. 2012. Coupled 3D Reconstruction of Sparse Facial Hair and Skin. ACM Trans. Graph. 31, Article 117 (2012). Issue 4. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Thabo Beeler, Fabian Hahn, Derek Bradley, Bernd Bickel, Paul Beardsley, Craig Gotsman, Robert W. Sumner, and Markus Gross. 2011. High-quality passive facial performance capture using anchor frames. ACM Trans. Graph. 30, Article 75 (2011). Issue 4. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Pascal Bérard, Derek Bradley, Markus Gross, and Thabo Beeler. 2016. Lightweight Eye Capture Using a Parametric Model. ACM Trans. Graph. 35, 4, Article 117 (2016). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Andrew Blake, Sami Romdhani, Thomas Vetter, Brian Amberg, and Andrew Fitzgibbon. 2007. Reconstructing High Quality Face-Surfaces using Model Based Stereo. 2007 11th IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision 00, undefined (2007).Google Scholar
- Volker Blanz, Curzio Basso, Tomaso Poggio, and Thomas Vetter. 2003. Reanimating faces in images and video. In Computer graphics forum, Vol. 22. Wiley Online Library.Google Scholar
- Volker Blanz and Thomas Vetter. 1999. A morphable model for the synthesis of 3D faces. In Proceedings of the 26th annual conference on Computer graphics and interactive techniques. Google ScholarDigital Library
- James Booth, Anastasios Roussos, Stefanos Zafeiriou, Allan Ponniah, and David Dunaway. 2016. A 3D Morphable Model Learnt From 10,000 Faces. In IEEE CVPR.Google Scholar
- Sofien Bouaziz, Yangang Wang, and Mark Pauly. 2013. Online Modeling for Realtime Facial Animation. ACM Trans. Graph. 32, 4, Article 40 (2013). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Derek Bradley, Wolfgang Heidrich, Tiberiu Popa, and Alla Sheffer. 2010. High resolution passive facial performance capture. ACM Trans. Graph. 29, Article 41 (2010). Issue 4. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Chen Cao, Qiming Hou, and Kun Zhou. 2014a. Displaced Dynamic Expression Regression for Real-time Facial Tracking and Animation. ACM Trans. Graph. 33, 4, Article 43 (2014). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Chen Cao, Yanlin Weng, Shun Zhou, Yiying Tong, and Kun Zhou. 2014b. Facewarehouse: A 3d facial expression database for visual computing. IEEE TVCG 20, 3 (2014). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Chen Cao, Hongzhi Wu, Yanlin Weng, Tianjia Shao, and Kun Zhou. 2016. Real-time facial animation with image-based dynamic avatars. ACM Trans. Graph. 35, 4 (2016). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Xudong Cao, Yichen Wei, Fang Wen, and Jian Sun. 2013. Face Alignment by Explicit Shape Regression. International Journal of Computer Vision (2013). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Menglei Chai, Linjie Luo, Kalyan Sunkavalli, Nathan Carr, Sunil Hadap, and Kun Zhou. 2015. High-quality Hair Modeling from a Single Portrait Photo. ACM Trans. Graph. 34, 6, Article 204 (2015). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Menglei Chai, Tianjia Shao, Hongzhi Wu, Yanlin Weng, and Kun Zhou. 2016. AutoHair: Fully Automatic Hair Modeling from a Single Image. ACM Trans. Graph. 35, 4, Article 116 (2016). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Menglei Chai, Lvdi Wang, Yanlin Weng, Xiaogang Jin, and Kun Zhou. 2013. Dynamic Hair Manipulation in Images and Videos. ACM Trans. Graph. 32, 4, Article 75 (2013). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Menglei Chai, Lvdi Wang, Yanlin Weng, Yizhou Yu, Baining Guo, and Kun Zhou. 2012. Single-view Hair Modeling for Portrait Manipulation. ACM Trans. Graph. 31, 4, Article 116 (2012). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Menglei Chai, Changxi Zheng, and Kun Zhou. 2014. A Reduced Model for Interactive Hairs. ACM Trans. Graph. 33, 4, Article 124 (2014). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Byoungwon Choe and Hyeong-Seok Ko. 2005. A Statistical Wisp Model and Pseudo-physical Approaches for Interactive Hairstyle Generation. IEEE Trans. Vis. Comput. Graph. 11, 2 (2005). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Timothy F Cootes, Gareth J Edwards, and Christopher J Taylor. 2001. Active appearance models. IEEE TPAMI 6 (2001). Google ScholarDigital Library
- David Cristinacce and Tim Cootes. 2008. Automatic feature localisation with constrained local models. Pattern Recogn. 41, 10 (2008). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Paul Debevec, Tim Hawkins, Chris Tchou, Haarm-Pieter Duiker, Westley Sarokin, and Mark Sagar. 2000. Acquiring the Reflectance Field of a Human Face (SIGGRAPH '00). Google ScholarDigital Library
- J. Deng, W. Dong, R. Socher, L.-J. Li, K. Li, and L. Fei-Fei. 2009. ImageNet: A Large-Scale Hierarchical Image Database. In CVPR09.Google Scholar
- Jose I. Echevarria, Derek Bradley, Diego Gutierrez, and Thabo Beeler. 2014. Capturing and Stylizing Hair for 3D Fabrication. ACM Trans. Graph. 33, 4, Article 125 (2014). Google ScholarDigital Library
- FaceUnity. 2017. (2017). http://www.faceunity.com/p2a-demo.mp4.Google Scholar
- Pablo Garrido, Levi Valgaerts, Chenglei Wu, and Christian Theobalt. 2013. Reconstructing Detailed Dynamic Face Geometry from Monocular Video. In ACM Trans. Graph. (Proceedings of SIGGRAPH Asia 2013), Vol. 32. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Pablo Garrido, Michael Zollhöfer, Dan Casas, Levi Valgaerts, Kiran Varanasi, Patrick Perez, and Christian Theobalt. 2016a. Reconstruction of Personalized 3D Face Rigs from Monocular Video. ACM Trans. Graph. (Presented at SIGGRAPH 2016) 35, 3 (2016). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Pablo Garrido, Michael Zollhöfer, Chenglei Wu, Derek Bradley, Patrick Pérez, Thabo Beeler, and Christian Theobalt. 2016b. Corrective 3D Reconstruction of Lips from Monocular Video. ACM Trans. Graph. 35, 6, Article 219 (2016). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Leon A Gatys, Alexander S Ecker, and Matthias Bethge. 2016. Image style transfer using convolutional neural networks. In IEEE CVPR.Google Scholar
- Abhijeet Ghosh, Graham Fyffe, Borom Tunwattanapong, Jay Busch, Xueming Yu, and Paul Debevec. 2011. Multiview Face Capture Using Polarized Spherical Gradient Illumination. ACM Trans. Graph. 30, 6, Article 129 (2011). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Kaiming He, Xiangyu Zhang, Shaoqing Ren, and Jian Sun. 2016. Deep residual learning for image recognition. In IEEE CVPR.Google Scholar
- Tomas Lay Herrera, Arno Zinke, and Andreas Weber. 2012. Lighting Hair from the Inside: A Thermal Approach to Hair Reconstruction. ACM Trans. Graph. 31, 6, Article 146 (2012). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Pei-Lun Hsieh, Chongyang Ma, Jihun Yu, and Hao Li. 2015. Unconstrained Realtime Facial Performance Capture. In IEEE CVPR.Google Scholar
- Liwen Hu, Chongyang Ma, Linjie Luo, and Hao Li. 2014a. Robust Hair Capture Using Simulated Examples. ACM Trans. Graph. (Proceedings SIGGRAPH 2014) 33, 4 (2014). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Liwen Hu, Chongyang Ma, Linjie Luo, and Hao Li. 2015. Single-View Hair Modeling Using A Hairstyle Database. ACM Trans. Graph. (Proceedings SIGGRAPH 2015) 34, 4 (2015). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Liwen Hu, Chongyang Ma, Linjie Luo, Li-Yi Wei, and Hao Li. 2014b. Capturing Braided Hairstyles. ACM Trans. Graph. (Proceedings SIGGRAPH Asia 2014) 33, 6 (2014). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Gary B. Huang, Manu Ramesh, Tamara Berg, and Erik Learned-Miller. 2007. Labeled Faces in the Wild: A Database for Studying Face Recognition in Unconstrained Environments. Technical Report 07--49. University of Massachusetts, Amherst.Google Scholar
- Alexandru Eugen Ichim, Sofien Bouaziz, and Mark Pauly. 2015. Dynamic 3D Avatar Creation from Hand-held Video Input. ACM Trans. Graph. 34, 4, Article 45 (2015). Google ScholarDigital Library
- itSeez3D: Avatar SDK. 2017. (2017). https://avatarsdk.com.Google Scholar
- Alec Jacobson, Zhigang Deng, Ladislav Kavan, and JP Lewis. 2014. Skinning: Real-time Shape Deformation. In ACM SIGGRAPH 2014 Courses. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Wenzel Jakob, Jonathan T. Moon, and Steve Marschner. 2009. Capturing Hair Assemblies Fiber by Fiber. ACM Trans. Graph. 28, 5, Article 164 (2009). Google ScholarDigital Library
- J. T. Kajiya and T. L. Kay. 1989. Rendering Fur with Three Dimensional Textures. In Proceedings of the 16th Annual Conference on Computer Graphics and Interactive Techniques (SIGGRAPH '89). ACM. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Vahid Kazemi and Josephine Sullivan. 2014. One millisecond face alignment with an ensemble of regression trees. In IEEE CVPR. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Ira Kemelmacher-Shlizerman. 2013. Internet-based Morphable Model. IEEE ICCV (2013). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Ira Kemelmacher-Shlizerman and Ronen Basri. 2011. 3d face reconstruction from a single image using a single reference face shape. IEEE TPAMI 33, 2 (2011). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Hyeongwoo Kim, Michael Zollöfer, Ayush Tewari, Justus Thies, Christian Richardt, and Theobalt Christian. 2017. InverseFaceNet: Deep Single-Shot Inverse Face Rendering From A Single Image. arXiv preprint arXiv:1703.10956 (2017).Google Scholar
- Tae-Yong Kim and Ulrich Neumann. 2002. Interactive Multiresolution Hair Modeling and Editing. ACM Trans. Graph. 21, 3 (2002). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Philipp Krähenbühl and Vladlen Koltun. 2011. Efficient Inference in Fully Connected CRFs with Gaussian Edge Potentials. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Hao Li, Bart Adams, Leonidas J. Guibas, and Mark Pauly. 2009. Robust Single-View Geometry And Motion Reconstruction. ACM Trans. Graph. (Proceedings SIGGRAPH Asia 2009) 28, 5 (2009). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Hao Li, Shunsuke Saito, Lingyu Wei, Iman Sadeghi, Liwen Hu, Jaewoo Seo, Koki Nagano, Jens Fursund, Yen-Chun Chen, and Stephen Chen. 2017. Pinscreen: Creating Performance-driven Avatars in Seconds. In ACM SIGGRAPH 2017 Real Time Live! (SIGGRAPH '17). ACM. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Hao Li, Laura Trutoiu, Kyle Olszewski, Lingyu Wei, Tristan Trutna, Pei-Lun Hsieh, Aaron Nicholls, and Chongyang Ma. 2015. Facial Performance Sensing Head-Mounted Display. ACM Trans. Graph. (Proceedings SIGGRAPH 2015) 34, 4 (2015). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Hao Li, Thibaut Weise, and Mark Pauly. 2010. Example-Based Facial Rigging. ACM Trans. Graph. (Proceedings SIGGRAPH 2010) 29, 3 (2010). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Hao Li, Jihun Yu, Yuting Ye, and Chris Bregler. 2013. Realtime Facial Animation with On-the-fly Correctives. ACM Trans. Graph. (Proceedings SIGGRAPH 2013) 32, 4 (2013). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Shu Liang, Linda G Shapiro, and Ira Kemelmacher-Shlizerman. 2016. Head reconstruction from internet photos. In European Conference on Computer Vision. Springer.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Ziwei Liu, Ping Luo, Xiaogang Wang, and Xiaoou Tang. 2015. Deep Learning Face Attributes in the Wild. In Proceedings of International Conference on Computer Vision (ICCV). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Loom.ai. 2017. (2017). http://www.loom.ai.Google Scholar
- Linjie Luo, Hao Li, and Szymon Rusinkiewicz. 2013. Structure-Aware Hair Capture. ACM Trans. Graph. (Proceedings SIGGRAPH 2013) 32, 4 (2013). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Debbie S. Ma, Joshua Correll, and Bernd Wittenbrink. 2015. The Chicago face database: A free stimulus set of faces and norming data. Behavior Research Methods 47, 4 (2015).Google Scholar
- Wan-Chun Ma, Tim Hawkins, Pieter Peers, Charles-Felix Chabert, Malte Weiss, and Paul Debevec. 2007. Rapid Acquisition of Specular and Diffuse Normal Maps from Polarized Spherical Gradient Illumination. In Eurographics Symposium on Rendering. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Erick Miller and Dmitriy Pinskiy. 2009. Realistic Eye Motion Using Procedural Geometric Methods. In SIGGRAPH 2009: Talks (SIGGRAPH '09). ACM, Article 75. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Kyle Olszewski, Joseph J. Lim, Shunsuke Saito, and Hao Li. 2016. High-Fidelity Facial and Speech Animation for VR HMDs. ACM Trans. Graph. (Proceedings SIGGRAPH Asia 2016) 35, 6 (2016). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Sylvain Paris, Will Chang, Oleg I. Kozhushnyan, Wojciech Jarosz, Wojciech Matusik, Matthias Zwicker, and Frédo Durand. 2008. Hair Photobooth: Geometric and Photometric Acquisition of Real Hairstyles. ACM Trans. Graph. 27, 3, Article 30 (2008). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Frederic I. Parke and Keith Waters. 2008. Computer Facial Animation (second ed.). AK Peters Ltd. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Pascal Paysan, Reinhard Knothe, Brian Amberg, Sami Romdhani, and Thomas Vetter. 2009. A 3D face model for pose and illumination invariant face recognition. In Advanced video and signal based surveillance, 2009. AVSS'09. Sixth IEEE International Conference on. IEEE. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Patrick Pérez, Michel Gangnet, and Andrew Blake. 2003. Poisson image editing. In ACM Trans. Graph., Vol. 22. ACM. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Pinscreen. 2017. (2017). http://www.pinscreen.com.Google Scholar
- Shaoqing Ren, Xudong Cao, Yichen Wei, and Jian Sun. 2014. Face alignment at 3000 fps via regressing local binary features. In IEEE CVPR, 2014 IEEE Conference on. IEEE. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Elad Richardson, Matan Sela, Roy Or-El, and Ron Kimmel. 2016. Learning Detailed Face Reconstruction from a Single Image. arXiv preprint arXiv:1611.05053 (2016).Google Scholar
- Iman Sadeghi, Heather Pritchett, Henrik Wann Jensen, and Rasmus Tamstorf. 2010. An Artist Friendly Hair Shading System. In ACM SIGGRAPH 2010 Papers (SIGGRAPH '10), Vol. 29. ACM. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Shunsuke Saito, Tianye Li, and Hao Li. 2016. Real-Time Facial Segmentation and Performance Capture from RGB Input. In ECCV.Google Scholar
- Shunsuke Saito, Lingyu Wei, Liwen Hu, Koki Nagano, and Hao Li. 2017. Photorealistic Facial Texture Inference Using Deep Neural Networks. In IEEE CVPR.Google Scholar
- Jason M. Saragih, Simon Lucey, and Jeffrey F. Cohn. 2011. Deformable Model Fitting by Regularized Landmark Mean-Shift. Int. J. Comput. Vision 91, 2 (2011). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Andrew Selle, Michael Lentine, and Ronald Fedkiw. 2008. A Mass Spring Model for Hair Simulation. ACM Trans. Graph. 27, 3, Article 64 (2008). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Fuhao Shi, Hsiang-Tao Wu, Xin Tong, and Jinxiang Chai. 2014. Automatic Acquisition of High-fidelity Facial Performances Using Monocular Videos. ACM Trans. Graph. 33, 6, Article 222 (2014). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Zhixin Shu, Ersin Yumer, Sunil Hadap, Kalyan Sunkavalli, Eli Shechtman, and Dimitris Samaras. 2017. Neural Face Editing with Intrinsic Image Disentangling. (2017). arXiv:arXiv:1704.04131Google Scholar
- Eftychios Sifakis, Igor Neverov, and Ronald Fedkiw. 2005. Automatic Determination of Facial Muscle Activations from Sparse Motion Capture Marker Data. ACM Trans. Graph. 24, 3 (2005). Google ScholarDigital Library
- K. Simonyan and A. Zisserman. 2014. Very Deep Convolutional Networks for Large-Scale Image Recognition. CoRR abs/1409.1556 (2014).Google Scholar
- Demetri Terzopoulos and Keith Waters. 1990. Physically-based facial modelling, analysis, and animation. The journal of visualization and computer animation 1, 2 (1990).Google Scholar
- Ayush Tewari, Michael Zollöfer, Hyeongwoo Kim, Pablo Garrido, Florian Bernard, Patrick Perez, and Theobalt Christian. 2017. MoFA: Model-based Deep Convolutional Face Autoencoder for Unsupervised Monocular Reconstruction. arXiv preprint arXiv:1703.10580 (2017).Google Scholar
- J. Thies, M. Zollhöfer, M. Stamminger, C. Theobalt, and M. Nießner. 2016a. Face2Face: Real-time Face Capture and Reenactment of RGB Videos. In IEEE CVPR.Google Scholar
- Justus Thies, Michael Zollöfer, Marc Stamminger, Christian Theobalt, and Matthias Nießner. 2016b. FaceVR: Real-Time Facial Reenactment and Eye Gaze Control in Virtual Reality. arXiv preprint arXiv:1610.03151 (2016).Google Scholar
- Paul Viola and Michael Jones. 2001. Rapid object detection using a boosted cascade of simple features. In IEEE CVPR, Vol. 1. IEEE.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Daniel Vlasic, Matthew Brand, Hanspeter Pfister, and Jovan Popović. 2005. Face Transfer with Multilinear Models. ACM Trans. Graph. 24, 3 (2005). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Javier von der Pahlen, Jorge Jimenez, Etienne Danvoye, Paul Debevec, Graham Fyffe, and Oleg Alexander. 2014. Digital Ira and Beyond: Creating Real-time Photoreal Digital Actors. In ACM SIGGRAPH 2014 Courses (SIGGRAPH '14). ACM, Article 1. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Lvdi Wang, Yizhou Yu, Kun Zhou, and Baining Guo. 2009. Example-based Hair Geometry Synthesis. ACM Trans. Graph. 28, 3 (2009). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Kelly Ward, Florence Bertails, Tae yong Kim, Stephen R. Marschner, Marie paule Cani, and Ming C. Lin. 2006. A survey on hair modeling: styling, simulation, and rendering. In IEEE TVCG. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Thibaut Weise, Sofien Bouaziz, Hao Li, and Mark Pauly. 2011. Realtime Performance-Based Facial Animation. ACM Trans. Graph. (Proceedings SIGGRAPH 2011) 30, 4 (July 2011). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Thibaut Weise, Hao Li, Luc Van Gool, and Mark Pauly. 2009. Face/Off: Live Facial Puppetry. In Proceedings of the 2009 ACM SIGGRAPH/Eurographics Symposium on Computer animation (Proc. SCA '09). Eurographics Association, ETH Zurich. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Yanlin Weng, Lvdi Wang, Xiao Li, Menglei Chai, and Kun Zhou. 2013. Hair Interpolation for Portrait Morphing. Computer Graphics Forum (2013).Google Scholar
- Chenglei Wu, Derek Bradley, Pablo Garrido, Michael Zollhöfer, Christian Theobalt, Markus Gross, and Thabo Beeler. 2016. Model-based Teeth Reconstruction. ACM Trans. Graph. 35, 6, Article 220 (2016). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Xuehan Xiong and Fernando De la Torre. 2013. Supervised descent method and its applications to face alignment. In IEEE CVPR. IEEE. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Cem Yuksel, Scott Schaefer, and John Keyser. 2009. Hair Meshes. ACM Trans. Graph. 28, 5, Article 166 (2009). Google ScholarDigital Library
- Yongning Zhu and Robert Bridson. 2005. Animating Sand As a Fluid. ACM Trans. Graph. 24, 3 (2005). Google ScholarDigital Library
- C. Lawrence Zitnick. 2010. Binary Coherent Edge Descriptors. In Proceedings of the 11th European Conference on Computer Vision: Part II (ECCV'10). Google ScholarDigital Library
Index Terms
- Avatar digitization from a single image for real-time rendering
Recommendations
Dynamic 3D avatar creation from hand-held video input
We present a complete pipeline for creating fully rigged, personalized 3D facial avatars from hand-held video. Our system faithfully recovers facial expression dynamics of the user by adapting a blendshape template to an image sequence of recorded ...
How to build a fantasy world based on reality: a case study of Final Fantasy XV: part II
SA '17: SIGGRAPH Asia 2017 CoursesFrom the onset and during the course of development for FINAL FANTASY XV, we built our world around the theme: "a fantasy based on reality". Under this slogan and based on this world, we created the real-time CG game FINAL FANTASY XV, as well as the pre-...
Digitization and Flexibility: Evidence from the South Korean Movie Market
This paper examines how the introduction of digital cinema technologies in the South Korean movie industry created flexibility for theaters in movie showings.
We examine how the introduction of digital cinema technologies in the South Korean movie industry created flexibility for theaters in movie showings. Using detailed data on theaters’ digital adoption and daily assortment decisions between 2006 and 2016, ...
Comments