ABSTRACT
Billions of smoke detectors are in use worldwide to provide early warning of fires. Despite this, they frequently fail to operate in an ongoing fire, risking death and property damage. A significant fraction of faults result from drift, or reduced sensitivity, and other faults in smoke detectors' phototransistors (PTs). Existing approaches attempt to detect drift from the PT output in normal conditions (without smoke). However, we find that drifted PTs mimic the output of working PTs in normal conditions, but diverge in the presence of smoke, making this approach ineffective.
This paper presents two novel approaches to systematically detect faults and measure and compensate for drift in smoke detectors' PTs. Our first approach, called FallTime, measures a PT "fingerprint," a unique electrical characteristic with distinct behavior for working, drifted, and faulty components. FallTime can be added to many existing smoke detector models in software alone, with no/minimal hardware modifications. Our second approach, DriftTestButton, is a mechanical test button that simulates the behavior of smoke when pressed. It offers a robust, straightforward approach to detect faults, and can measure and compensate for drift across the entire smoke detector system. We empirically evaluate both approaches and present extensive experimental results from actual smoke detectors deployed in a commercial building, along with custom-built smoke detectors. By conducting tests with live smoke, we show that both FallTime and DriftTestButton perform more effectively than existing fault tolerance techniques and stand to substantially reduce the risk that a smoke detector fails to alarm in the presence of smoke.
- 2005. System Sensor Europe. https://www.firelite.com/CatalogDocuments/df52384.pdfGoogle Scholar
- 2017. Basic Characteristics and Application Circuit Design of Transistor Couplers. https://toshiba.semicon-storage.com/info/docget.jsp?did=13438Google Scholar
- 2018. First alert 9120 Smoke detector. https://www.firstalert.com/product/Google Scholar
- 2018. GST I-9102 Intelligent Photoelectric Smoke Detector. https://www.gst.com.cn/en/data/products/Manuals/I-9102%20Intelligent%20Photoelectric%20Smoke%20Detector%20Issue1.03.pdfGoogle Scholar
- 2018. Kidde Battery Operated Photoelectric Smoke Alarm P9050. https://www.kidde.com/home-safety/en/us/products/fire-safety/smoke-alarms/p9050/Google Scholar
- 2018. LTspice. http://www.analog.com/en/design-center/design-tools-and-calculators/ltspice-simulator.htmlGoogle Scholar
- 2019. NAtional Fire Protection Association, Ionization vs photoelectric. https://www.nfpa.org/Public-Education/Staying-safe/Safety-equipment/Smoke-alarms/Ionization-vs-photoelectricGoogle Scholar
- 2019. Photoelectric Proximity Sensors. https://www.fargocontrols.com/sensors/photoelectric.html/Google Scholar
- 2019. STM32 IoT node. https://www.st.com/en/evaluation-tools/b-l475e-iot01a.htmlGoogle Scholar
- MZ Abidin, Arnis Asmat, and MN Hamidon. 2018. Comparative Study of Drift Compensation Methods for Environmental Gas Sensors. Earth and Environmental Science 117 (2018).Google Scholar
- M. G. Adlerstein and J. M. Gering. 2000. Current Induced Degradation in GaAs HBT's. IEEE Transactions on Electronic Devices 47 (2000).Google Scholar
- M. Ahrens. 2009. Smoke Alarms in U.S. Home Fires. Technical Report. National Fire Protection Association.Google Scholar
- M. Ahrens. 2019. Smoke Alarms in US Home Fires. Technical Report. National Fire Protection Association.Google Scholar
- National Electrical Manufacturers Association. 2002. Mission Effectiveness and Failure Rates Drive Inspection, Testing, and Maintenance of Fire Detection, Alarm, and Signaling Systems. Technical Report. Society of Fire Protection Engineers.Google Scholar
- National Fire Protection Association et al. 2010. NFPA 72: National Fire Alarm and Signaling Code. National Fire Protection Association.Google Scholar
- James P Barrett. 1974. The coefficient of determination. The American Statistician 28, 1 (1974), 19--20.Google Scholar
- J. J. Brenden. 1970. DETERMINING THE UTILITY OF A NEW OPTICAL TEST PROCEDURE FOR MEASURING SMOKE FROM VARIOUS WOOD PRODUCTS. Technical Report. Forest Products Laboratory.Google Scholar
- M. S. Carrol, A. Neugroschel, and C. T. Sah. 1997. Degradation of silicon bipolar junction transistors at high forward current densities. IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 44 (1997), 110--117.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Tusher Chakraborty, Akshay Uttama Nambi, Ranveer Chandra, Rahul Sharma, Manohar Swaminathan, Zerina Kapetanovic, and Jonathan Appavoo. 2018. Fall-curve: A novel primitive for IoT Fault Detection and Isolation. In Proceedings of the 16th ACM SenSys. 95--107.Google ScholarDigital Library
- Ratzlaff L. Bush D Chandler, B. 2016. Photoelectric Smoke Detector with Drift Compensation. https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/d3/f0/42/815589e7092124/US9396637.pdf US Patent 9,396,637B2.Google Scholar
- Thomas Cleary. 2016. A Study on the Performance of Current Smoke Alarms to the New Fire and Nuisance Tests Prescribed in ANSI/UL 217-2015. Technical Report. US Department of Commerce.Google Scholar
- Shoucheng Ding and Wenhui Li. 2011. Research on photoelectric sensor turbidity detecting system. Sensor Letters 9, 4 (2011).Google ScholarCross Ref
- W. F. Doherty. 1977. Smoke detector with test means for simulating a predetermined concentration of smoke. US Patent No. 4144458.Google Scholar
- K. W. Dungan. 2007. Reliability of Fire Alarm Systems. Fire Protection Engineering 2007 Q1 (2007), 11 pages.Google Scholar
- J. Webster (ed.). 1999. Hot Carriers. Wiley Encyclopedia of Electrical and Electronics Engineering.Google Scholar
- TT Electronics. 2016. NPN Silicon Phototransistor OP505. https://www.ttelectronics.com/TTElectronics/media/ProductFiles/Optoelectronics/Datasheets/OP505-506-535-705.pdfGoogle Scholar
- A. Feinberg, P. Ersland, V. Kaper, and A. Widom. 2000. On Aging Of Key Transistor Device Parameters. Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology, Providence, USA, 231--236.Google Scholar
- Firebus 2014. FB-AP Drift Compensation. Firebus. https://firebus.net/drift-compensationGoogle Scholar
- Firelite Alarms 2015. SD355(A) Series Addressable Photoelectric Smoke Detectors. Firelite Alarms. https://www.firelite.com/CatalogDocuments/df-52384.pdfGoogle Scholar
- Joseph Fleming. 1999. Smoke Detector Technology and the Investigation of Fatal Fires. (1999). https://www.interfire.org/features/smokedetector.aspGoogle Scholar
- Allen Hess. 2011. Smoke Detector Sensitivity Testing. http://www.cfaa.ca/Files/flash/ontario/ats2011/Smoke_Detector_Sensitivity_Testing_by_Allen_Hess.pdf "Presentation".Google Scholar
- Chenming Hu. 2009. Modern Semiconductor Devices for Integrated Circuits. Pearson College Div.Google Scholar
- S. Y. Huang, K. M. Chen, G. W. Huang, V. Liang, H. C. Tseng, T. L. Hsu, and C. Y. Chang. 2005. Hot-Carrier Induced Degradations on RF Power Characteristics of SiGe Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors. IEEE Transactions on Device and Materials Reliability 5 (2005), 183--189.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Kidde Fire Systems 2011. SmartOne Devices. Kidde Fire Systems. https://www.kidde-fenwal.com/Media/Data%20Sheets/K-76-801_screen.pdfGoogle Scholar
- Shi-Kuk Kim, Hyun-Dai Yuk, Seung-Hyun Yang, Seung-Wook Jee, and Chun-Ha Lee. 2009. A Study on the Problem of Tester for the Field Inspection of the Photoelectric Smoke Detector. Fire Science and Engineering 23 (2009), 137--144.Google Scholar
- S. L. Kosier, A. Wei, R. D. Schrimpf, D. M. Fleetwood, M. D. Delaus, R. L. Pease, and W. E. Combs. 1995. Physically based comparison of hot-carrier-induced and ionizing-radation-induced degradation in BJT's. IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 42 (1995), 436--444.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Sovannarith Leng. 2017. Identifying and evaluating aging signatures in light emitting diode lighting systems. Ph.D. Dissertation.Google Scholar
- Sumukh Marathe, Akshay Nambi, Nishant Shrivastava, Manohar Swaminathan, and Ronak Sutaria. 2020. Fault Diagnosis System for Low-Cost Air Pollution Sensors: Demo Abstract. In Proceedings of the 18th Conference on Embedded Networked Sensor Systems (Virtual Event, Japan) (SenSys '20). Association for Computing Machinery, New York, NY, USA, 611--612. Google ScholarDigital Library
- Sumukh Marathe, Akshay Nambi, Manohar Swaminathan, and Ronak Sutaria. 2021. CurrentSense: A novel approach for fault and drift detection in environmental IoT sensors. In Proceedings of the 6th ACM/IEEE International Conference on Internet of Things Design and Implementation (IoTDI). ACM, 99--112.Google ScholarDigital Library
- A. A. Marsocci. 1975. Optical smoke detector with light scattering test device. US Patent No. 3868184.Google Scholar
- George Mulholland. 2002. Smoke Production and Properties. In SFPE Handbook of Fire Protection Engineering, Phillip DiNenno, Dougal Drysdale, Craig Beyler, W. D. Walton, Richard Custer, John R. Hall, and John M. Watts (Eds.). Society of Fire Protection Engineers.Google Scholar
- Ann Mutschler. 2017. Transistor Aging Intensifies At 10/7nm And Below. (2017). https://semiengineering.com/transistor-aging-intensifies-10nm/#:~:text=Devicedegradationbecomeslimitingfactor,significantchallengeinadvancedSoCs.&text=Transistoragingandreliabilityare,teamsat10nmandbelow.Google Scholar
- Electronics Notes. 2020. Phototransistor Applications & Circuit Configurations. (2020). https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/electronic_components/transistor/phototransistor-circuits-applications.phpGoogle Scholar
- NXP Semiconductor 2006. Photoelectric Smoke Detector IC with I/O and Temporal Pattern Horn Driver. NXP Semiconductor. https://www.nxp.com/docs/en/data-sheet/MC145012.pdfGoogle Scholar
- Bob Orwiler. 1969. Vertical Amplifier Circuits. Tektronix. (1969).Google Scholar
- OSRAM Opto Semiconductors 2018. SFH 4550. OSRAM Opto Semiconductors. https://www.osram.com/media/resource/hires/osram-dam-2496286/SFH%204550.pdfGoogle Scholar
- Corinne Peek-Asa, Jingzhen Yang, Cara Hamann, and Tracy Young. 2011. Smoke alarm tests may not adequately indicate smoke alarm function. Journal of Burn Care & Research 32, 4 (2011), e135--e139.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Muhammad H Rashid and MH Rashid. 1995. SPICE for circuits and electronics using PSPICE. Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, NJ.Google Scholar
- R. P. Schifiliti. 2006. Fire Alarm Systems for Life Safety Code Users. National Fire Protection Association, Arlington, VA. 1113 -- 1138 pages.Google Scholar
- Vishay Semiconductors. 2011. BPW96B, BPW96C Silicon NPN Phototransistor. https://www.vishay.com/docs/81532/bpw96.pdfGoogle Scholar
- Vishay Semiconductors. 2013. BPV11F Silicon NPN Phototransistor. http://www.vishay.com/photo-detectors/list/product-81505/Google Scholar
- AG Sensirion. 2017. Sensirion Particulate Matter Sensor SPS30.Google Scholar
- ST Microelectronics 2019. Application guide: Fire alarms and smoke detectors. ST Microelectronics. https://www.st.com/content/ccc/resource/sales_and_marketing/presentation/product_presentation/ae/6c/ae/b5/db/88/45/a9/ulp_firealarms_appliguide.pdf/files/ulp_firealarms_appliguide.pdf/jcr:content/translations/en.ulp_firealarms_appliguide.pdfGoogle Scholar
- System Sensor 2016. System Smoke Detectors Application Guide. System Sensor. https://www.systemsensor.com/en-us/Documents/System_Smoke_Detectors_AppGuide_SPAG91.pdfGoogle Scholar
- Texas Instrument 2017. ADS7056 Ultra-Low Power, Ultra-Small Size, 14-Bit, High-Speed SAR ADC. Texas Instrument. https://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/ads7056.pdf?ts=1617225081254&ref_url=https%253A%252F%252Fwww.google.com%252FGoogle Scholar
- Texas Instruments 2018. MSP430FR596x, MSP430FR594x Mixed-Signal Microcontrollers. Texas Instruments. https://www.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/msp430fr5969.pdf?ts=1617221382068&ref_url=https%253A%252F%252Fwww.ti.com%252Fproduct%252FMSP430FR5969Google Scholar
- N. Thudsalingkarnsakul, S. Thainoi, and S. Kanjanachuchai. 2007. Characteristics of GaAs-based Phototransistors After High-Power Operation. In ECTI International Conference. ECTI, 141--144.Google Scholar
- N. Toufik, F. Pelanchon, and P. Mialhe. 2001. Degradation of Junction Parameters of an Electrically Stressed NPN Bipolar Transistor. Active and Passive Electrical Components 24 (2001), 155--163.Google ScholarCross Ref
- Van Tran, Robert Stuart, and Hardik Bhavskar. 2009. Phototransistor Switching Time Analysis. California Eastern Laboratories.Google Scholar
- Gary Wasserman. 2002. Reliability Verification, Testing, and Analysis in Engineering Design. Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan.Google Scholar
- Noah Zamdmer. 1994. Hot-Electron Degradation of Bipolar Transistors. Ph.D. Dissertation. Massachusetts Institute of Technology.Google Scholar
Index Terms
- Is your smoke detector working properly?: robust fault tolerance approaches for smoke detectors
Recommendations
WCA-VFnet: A Dedicated Complex Forest Smoke Fire Detector
Neural Information ProcessingAbstractForest fires pose a significant threat to ecosystems, causing extensive damage. The use of low-resolution forest fire imagery introduces high complexity due to its multi-scene, multi-environment, multi-temporal, and multi-angle nature. This ...
Smoke Detector: Cross-Product Intrusion Detection With Weak Indicators
ACSAC '17: Proceedings of the 33rd Annual Computer Security Applications ConferenceThe central task of a Security Incident and Event Manager (SIEM) or Managed Security Service Provider (MSSP) is to detect security incidents on the basis of tens of thousands of event types coming from many kinds of security products. We present Smoke ...
CurrentSense: A novel approach for fault and drift detection in environmental IoT sensors
IoTDI '21: Proceedings of the International Conference on Internet-of-Things Design and ImplementationSensor data quality plays a fundamental role in increasing the adoption of IoT devices for environmental data collection. Due to the nature of the deployment, i.e., in-the-wild and in harsh environments, coupled with limitations of low-cost components, ...
Comments