1932

Abstract

Most species have one or more natural enemies, e.g., predators, parasites, pathogens, and herbivores, among others. These species in turn typically attack multiple victim species. This leads to the possibility of indirect interactions among those victims, both positive and negative. The term apparent competition commonly denotes negative indirect interactions between victim species that arise because they share a natural enemy. This indirect interaction, which in principle can be reflected in many facets of the distribution and abundance of individual species and more broadly govern the structure of ecological communities in time and space, pervades many natural ecosystems. It also is a central theme in many applied ecological problems, including the control of agricultural pests, harvesting, the conservation of endangered species, and the dynamics of emerging diseases. At one end of the scale of life, apparent competition characterizes intriguing aspects of dynamics within individual organisms—for example, the immune system is akin in many ways to a predator that can induce negative indirect interactions among different pathogens. At intermediate scales of biological organization, the existence and strength of apparent competition depend upon many contingent details of individual behavior and life history, as well as the community and spatial context within which indirect interactions play out. At the broadest scale of macroecology and macroevolution, apparent competition may play a major, if poorly understood, role in the evolution of species’ geographical ranges and adaptive radiations.

Loading

Article metrics loading...

/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110316-022628
2017-11-02
2024-03-28
Loading full text...

Full text loading...

/deliver/fulltext/ecolsys/48/1/annurev-ecolsys-110316-022628.html?itemId=/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110316-022628&mimeType=html&fmt=ahah

Literature Cited

  1. Abrams P. 1987. Indirect interactions between species that share a predator: varieties of indirect effects. Predation: Direct and Indirect Impacts on Aquatic Communities WC Kerfoot, A Sih 38–54 Lebanon, NH: Univ. Press N. Engl. [Google Scholar]
  2. Abrams PA. 1998. High competition with low similarity and low competition with high similarity: exploitative and apparent competition in consumer-resource systems. Am. Nat. 152:116–28 [Google Scholar]
  3. Abrams PA. 2000. Character shifts of prey species that share predators. Am. Nat. 156:S45–61 [Google Scholar]
  4. Abrams PA, Chen X. 2002. The evolution of traits affecting resource acquisition and predator vulnerability: character displacement under real and apparent competition. Am. Nat. 160:692–704 [Google Scholar]
  5. Abrams PA, Holt RD, Roth JD. 1998. Apparent competition or apparent mutualism? Shared predation when populations cycle. Ecology 79:201–12 [Google Scholar]
  6. Abrams PA, Kawecki TJ. 1999. Adaptive host preference and the dynamics of host-parasitoid interactions. Theor. Popul. Biol. 56:307–24 [Google Scholar]
  7. Abrusan G, Krambeck H-J. 2006. Competition may determine the diversity of transposable elements. Theor. Popul. Biol. 70:364–75 [Google Scholar]
  8. Adams LG, Farley SD, Stricker CA, Demma DJ, Roffler GH. et al. 2010. Are inland wolf–ungulate systems influenced by marine subsidies of Pacific salmon?. Ecol. Appl. 20:251–62 [Google Scholar]
  9. Alroy J. 2001. A multispecies overkill simulation of the end-Pleistocene megafaunal mass extinction. Science 292:1893–96 [Google Scholar]
  10. Ammunét T, Klemola T, Parvinen K. 2014. Consequences of asymmetric competition between resident and invasive defoliators: a novel empirically based modelling approach. Theor. Popul. Biol. 92:107–17 [Google Scholar]
  11. Arditi R, Ginzburg LR. 2012. How Species Interact: Altering the Standard View on Trophic Ecology Oxford, UK: Oxford Univ. Press
  12. Armstrong R. 1979. Prey species replacement along a gradient of nutrient enrichment: a graphical approach. Ecology 60:76–84 [Google Scholar]
  13. Askew RR. 1968. A survey of leaf-miners and their parasites on laburnum. Trans. R. Entomol. Soc. Lond. 120:1–37 [Google Scholar]
  14. Banerji A, Morin PJ. 2014. Trait-mediated apparent competition in an intraguild predator-prey system. Oikos 123:567–74 [Google Scholar]
  15. Barraquand F, New LF, Redpath S, Matthiopoulos J. 2015. Indirect effects of primary prey population dynamics on alternative prey. Theor. Popul. Biol. 103:44–59 [Google Scholar]
  16. Bergerud AT. 1967. The distribution and abundance of arctic hares in Newfoundland. Can. Field Nat. 81:242–48 [Google Scholar]
  17. Bohannan BJM, Lenski RE. 2000. The relative importance of competition and predation varies with productivity in a model community. Am. Nat. 156:329–40 [Google Scholar]
  18. Bonsall MB, Hassell MP. 1997. Apparent competition structures ecological assemblages. Nature 388:371–73 [Google Scholar]
  19. Bonsall MB, Hassell MP. 1998. Population dynamics of apparent competition in a host-parasitoid assemblage. J. Anim. Ecol. 67:918–29 [Google Scholar]
  20. Bonsall MB, Hassell MP. 1999. Parasitoid-mediated effects: apparent competition and the persistence of host-parasitoid assemblages. Res. Popul. Ecol. 41:59–68 [Google Scholar]
  21. Bonsall MB, Hassell MP. 2000. The effects of metapopulation structure on indirect interactions in host-parasitoid assemblages. Proc. R. Soc. B 267:2207–12 [Google Scholar]
  22. Bonsall MB, Hassell MP. 2005. Understanding ecological concepts: the role of laboratory systems. Adv. Ecol. Res. 37:1–36 [Google Scholar]
  23. Bonsall MB, Holt RD. 2003. The effects of enrichment on the dynamics of apparent competitive interactions in stage-structured systems. Am. Nat. 162:780–95 [Google Scholar]
  24. Bonsall MB, Holt RD. 2010. Apparent competition and vector-host interactions. Isr. J. Ecol. Evol. 56:393–416 [Google Scholar]
  25. Branch TA, Lobo AS, Purell SW. 2013. Opportunistic exploitation: an overlooked pathway to extinction. Trends Ecol. Evol. 28:409–13 [Google Scholar]
  26. Brassil CE, Abrams PA. 2004. The prevalence of asymmetrical indirect effects in two-host-one-parasitoid systems. Theor. Popul. Biol. 66:71–82 [Google Scholar]
  27. Brockhurst MA, Rainey PB, Buckling A. 2004. The effect of spatial heterogeneity and parasites on the evolution of host diversity. Proc. R. Soc. B 271:107–11 [Google Scholar]
  28. Brown SP, Chat LL, Taddei F. 2008. Evolution of virulence: triggering host inflammation allows invading pathogens to exclude competitors. Ecol. Lett. 11:44–51 [Google Scholar]
  29. Burger JC, Louda SM. 1994. Indirect versus direct effects of grasses on growth of a cactus (Opuntia fragilis): insect herbivory versus competition. Oecologia 99:79–87 [Google Scholar]
  30. Cahill DM, Rookes JE, Wilson BA, Gibson L, McDougall KJ. 2008. Phytophthora cinnamomi and Australia's biodiversity: impacts, predictions and progress towards control. Aust. J. Bot. 56:279–310 [Google Scholar]
  31. Castorani MCN, Hovel KA. 2015. Invasive prey indirectly increase predation on their native competitors. Ecology 96:1911–22 [Google Scholar]
  32. Chailleux A, Mohl EK, Alves MT, Messelink GJ, Desneux N. 2014. Natural enemy-mediated indirect interactions among prey species: potential for enhancing biocontrol services in agroecosystems. Pest Manag. Sci. 70:1769–79 [Google Scholar]
  33. Chaneton EJ, Bonsall MB. 2000. Enemy-mediated apparent competition: empirical patterns and the evidence. Oikos 88:380–94 [Google Scholar]
  34. Chaneton EJ, Mazia CN, Kitzberger T. 2010. Facilitation versus apparent competition: Insect herbivory alters tree seedling recruitment under nurse shrubs in a steppe-woodland ecotone. J. Ecol. 98:488–97 [Google Scholar]
  35. Chase JM. 1999. Food web effects of prey size refugia: variable interactions and alternative stable equilibria. Am. Nat. 154:559–70 [Google Scholar]
  36. Chase JM. 2003. Experimental evidence for alternative stable equilibria in a benthic food web. Ecol. Lett. 6:733–41 [Google Scholar]
  37. Chase JM, Abrams PA, Grover J, Diehl S, Holt RD. et al. 2002. The interaction between predation and competition: a review and synthesis. Ecol. Lett. 5:302–15 [Google Scholar]
  38. Chesson P, Kuang JJ. 2008. The interaction between predation and competition. Nature 456:235–38 [Google Scholar]
  39. Cobb RC, Meentemeyer RK, Rizzo DM. 2010. Apparent competition in canopy trees determined by pathogen transmission rather than susceptibility. Ecology 91:327–33 [Google Scholar]
  40. Condon MA, Scheffer SJ, Lewis ML, Wharton R, Adams DC, Forbes AA. 2014. Lethal interactions between parasites and prey increase niche diversity in a tropical community. Science 343:1240–44 [Google Scholar]
  41. Connell JH. 1990. Apparent versus “real” competition in plants. Perspectives on Plant Competition JB Grace, D Tilman 9–23 San Diego: Academic [Google Scholar]
  42. Cronin JT. 2007. Shared parasitoids in a metacommunity: Indirect interactions inhibit herbivore membership in local communities. Ecology 88:122977–90 [Google Scholar]
  43. Dunn AM, Torchin ME, Hatcher MJ, Kotanen PM, Blumenthal DM. et al. 2012. Indirect effects of parasites in invasions. Funct. Ecol. 26:1262–74 [Google Scholar]
  44. Enge S, Nylund GM, Pavia H. 2013. Native generalist herbivores promote invasion of a chemically defended seaweed via refuge-mediated apparent competition. Ecol. Lett. 16:487–92 [Google Scholar]
  45. Estes JA, Brashares JS, Power ME. 2013. Predicting and detecting reciprocity between indirect ecological interactions and evolution. Am. Nat. 181:S76–S99 [Google Scholar]
  46. Farkas TE, Mononen T, Comeault AA, Hanski I, Nosil P. 2013. Evolution of camouflage drives rapid ecological change in an insect community. Curr. Biol. 23:1835–43 [Google Scholar]
  47. Frost CM, Peralta G, Rand TA, Didham RK, Varsari A, Tylianakis JM. 2016. Apparent competition drives community-wide parasitism rates and changes in host abundance across ecosystem boundaries. Nat. Commun. 7:12644 [Google Scholar]
  48. Fulling EH. 1943. Plant life and the law of man. IV. Barberry, currant and gooseberry, and cedar control. Bot. Rev. 9:438–592 [Google Scholar]
  49. Gibson L. 2006. The role of lethal control in managing the effects of apparent competition on endangered prey species. Wildl. Soc. Bull. 30:1220–24 [Google Scholar]
  50. Godfray HCJ. 2014. Society, where none intrudes. Science 343:1213–14 [Google Scholar]
  51. Grover JP, Holt RD. 1998. Disentangling resource and apparent competition: realistic models for plant-herbivore communities. J. Theor. Biol. 191:353–76 [Google Scholar]
  52. Haerter JO, Mitarai N, Sneppen K. 2014. Phage and bacteria support mutual diversity in a narrowing staircase of coexistence. ISME J 8:2317–26 [Google Scholar]
  53. Harmon JP, Ives AR, Losey JE, Olson AC, Rauwald KS. 2000. Coleomegilla maculata (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) predation on pea aphids promoted by proximity to dandelions. Oecologia 125:543–48 [Google Scholar]
  54. Hastings A, Godfray HCJ. 1999. Learning, host fidelity and the stability of host-parasitoid communities. Am. Nat. 153:295–301 [Google Scholar]
  55. Heimpel GE, Mills NJ. 2017. Biological Control: Ecology and Applications Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  56. Holt RD. 1977. Predation, apparent competition, and the structure of prey communities. Theor. Popul. Biol. 12:197–229 [Google Scholar]
  57. Holt RD. 1979. Predation and the structure of ecological communities PhD Dissertation, Harvard Univ Cambridge, MA:
  58. Holt RD. 1984. Spatial heterogeneity, indirect interactions, and the coexistence of prey species. Am. Nat. 124:377–406 [Google Scholar]
  59. Holt RD. 1987. Prey communities in patchy environments. Oikos 50:276–90 [Google Scholar]
  60. Holt RD. 1997a. Community modules. Multitrophic Interactions in Terrestrial Ecosystems AC Gange, VK Brown, 36th Symp. Br. Ecol. Soc 333–49 Oxford, UK: Blackwell Sci. [Google Scholar]
  61. Holt RD. 1997b. From metapopulation dynamics to community structure: some consequences of spatial heterogeneity. Metapopulation Biology I. Hanski, M Gilpin 149–64 New York: Academic [Google Scholar]
  62. Holt RD. 2006. Emergent neutrality. Trends Ecol. Evol. 21:531–33 [Google Scholar]
  63. Holt RD. 2007. In ecology and evolution, when I say “I”, should I mean “We”?. Isr. J. Ecol. Evol. 53:1–7 [Google Scholar]
  64. Holt RD. 2012. Apparent competition. Encyclopedia of Theoretical Ecology A Hastings, LJ Gross 45–52 Berkeley, CA: Univ. Calif. Press [Google Scholar]
  65. Holt RD, Grover J, Tilman D. 1994. Simple rules for interspecific dominance in systems with exploitative and apparent competition. Am. Nat. 144:741–77 [Google Scholar]
  66. Holt RD, Hochberg ME. 2001. Indirect interactions, community modules, and biological control: a theoretical perspective. Evaluation of Indirect Ecological Effects of Biological Control, E Waijnberg, JK Scott, PC Quimby 13–37 Oxfordshire, UK: CAB Int. [Google Scholar]
  67. Holt RD, Kotler BP. 1987. Short-term apparent competition. Am. Nat. 130:412–30 [Google Scholar]
  68. Holt RD, Lawton JH. 1993. Apparent competition and enemy-free space in insect host-parasitoid communities. Am. Nat. 142:623–45 [Google Scholar]
  69. Holt RD, Lawton JH. 1994. The ecological consequences of shared natural enemies. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 25:495–520 [Google Scholar]
  70. Holt RD, Pickering J. 1985. Infectious disease and species coexistence: a model of Lotka-Volterra form. Am. Nat. 126:196–211 [Google Scholar]
  71. Hoogendoorn M, Heimpel GE. 2002. Indirect interactions between an introduced and a native ladybird beetle species mediated by a shared parasitoid. Biol. Control 25:224–30 [Google Scholar]
  72. Hughes GL, Vega-Rodriguez J, Xue P, Rasgon JL. 2012. Wolbachia strain wAlbB enhances infection by the rodent malaria parasite Plasmodium berghei in Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 78:1491–95 [Google Scholar]
  73. Janssen E, Sabelis MW. 2015. Alternative food and biological control by generalist predatory mites: the case of Amblyseius swirskii. Exp. Appl. Acarol. 65:413–18 [Google Scholar]
  74. Jeffries MJ, Lawton JH. 1984. Enemy free space and the structure of ecological communities. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 23:269–86 [Google Scholar]
  75. Jones CG, Lawton JH, Shachak M. 1994. Organisms as ecosystem engineers. Oikos 69:373–86 [Google Scholar]
  76. Kaser JM, Ode PJ. 2016. Hidden risks and benefits of natural enemy-mediated indirect effects. Curr. Opin. Insect. Sci. 14:105–11 [Google Scholar]
  77. Keesing F, Holt RD, Ostfeld RS. 2006. Effects of species diversity on disease risk. Ecol. Lett. 9:485–98 [Google Scholar]
  78. King AA, Hastings A. 2003. Spatial mechanisms for coexistence of species sharing a common natural enemy. Theor. Popul. Biol. 64:431–38 [Google Scholar]
  79. King KC, Bonsall MB. 2017. The evolutionary and coevolutionary consequences of defensive microbes for host-parasite interactions. BMC Evol. Biol. 17:190 [Google Scholar]
  80. Klauschies T, Vasseur DA, Gaedke U. 2016. Trait adaptation promotes species coexistence in diverse predator and prey communities. Ecol. Evol. 6:4141–59 [Google Scholar]
  81. Krivan V. 2014. Competition in di- and tri-trophic food web modules. J. Theor. Biol. 343:127–37 [Google Scholar]
  82. Kuang JJ, Chesson P. 2009. Coexistence of annual plants: Generalist seed predation weakens the storage effect. Ecology 90:170–82 [Google Scholar]
  83. Lau JA. 2012. Evolutionary indirect effects of biological invasions. Oecologia 170:171–81 [Google Scholar]
  84. Leibold MA. 1996. A graphical model of keystone predators in communities: trophic regulation of abundance, incidence, and diversity patterns in communities. Am. Nat. 147:784–812 [Google Scholar]
  85. Lotka AJ. 1924. Elements in Physical Biology New York: Dover
  86. McCoy MW, Barfield M, Holt RD. 2009. Predator shadows: complex life histories as generators of spatially patterned indirect interactions across ecosystems. Oikos 118:87–100 [Google Scholar]
  87. McPeek MA. 2012. Intraspecific density dependence and a guild of consumers coexisting on one resource. Ecology 93:2728–35 [Google Scholar]
  88. Menge BA. 1995. Indirect effects in marine rocky intertidal interaction webs: patterns and importance. Ecol. Monogr. 65:21–74 [Google Scholar]
  89. Meszéna G, Gyllenberg M, Pásztor L, Metz JAJ. 2006. Competitive exclusion and limiting similarity: a unified theory. Theor. Pop. Biol. 69:68–87 [Google Scholar]
  90. Mordecai EA. 2011. Pathogen impacts on plant communities: unifying theory, concepts, and empirical work. Ecol. Monogr. 81:429–41 [Google Scholar]
  91. Moreira LA, Iturbe-Ormaetxe I, Jeffery JA, Lu G, Pyke AT. et al. 2009. A Wolbachia symbiont in Aedes aegypti limits infection with dengue, Chikungunya, and Plasmodium. Cell 139:1268–78 [Google Scholar]
  92. Morris DW, Holt RD, Kotler BP. 2017. Apparent competition. Reference Module in Life Sciences Elsevier https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809633-8.12264-2 [Crossref] [Google Scholar]
  93. Morris RJ, Lewis OT, Godfray HCJ. 2004. Experimental evidence for apparent competition in a tropical forest food web. Nature 428:310–13 [Google Scholar]
  94. Morris RJ, Lewis OT, Godfray HCJ. 2005. Apparent competition and insect community structure: towards a spatial perspective. Ann. Zool. Fennici 42:449–62 [Google Scholar]
  95. Mouquet N, Belrose V, Thomas JA, Elmes GW, Clarke RT, Hochberg ME. 2005. Conserving community modules: a case study of the endangered Lycaenid butterfly Maculinea alcon. Ecology 86:3160–73 [Google Scholar]
  96. Murdoch WW, Oaten A. 1975. Predation and population stability. Adv. Ecol. Res. 9:1–131 [Google Scholar]
  97. Noy-Meir I. 1981. Theoretical dynamics of competitors under predation. Oecologia 50:277–84 [Google Scholar]
  98. Ohgushi T, Schmitz O, Holt RD. , eds. 2012. Trait-Mediated Indirect Interactions: Ecological and Evolutionary Perspectives Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univ. Press
  99. Okamoto KW, Amarasekare P, Petty ITD. 2014. Modeling oncolytic virotherapy: Is complete tumor-tropism too much of a good thing?. J. Theor. Biol. 358:166–78 [Google Scholar]
  100. Oksanen L. 1990. Predation, herbivory, and plant strategies along gradients of primary productivity. Perspectives on Plant Competition JB Grace, D Tilman 445–74 San Diego: Academic [Google Scholar]
  101. Oliver M, Luque-Larena JJ, Lambin X. 2009. Do rabbits eat voles? Apparent competition, habitat heterogeneity and large-scale coexistence under mink predation. Ecol. Lett. 12:1201–9 [Google Scholar]
  102. Orrock JL, Baskett ML, Holt RD. 2010a. Spatial interplay of plant competition and consumer foraging mediate plant coexistence and drive the invasion ratchet. Proc. R. Soc. B 277:3307–15 [Google Scholar]
  103. Orrock JL, Holt RD, Baskett ML. 2010b. Refuge mediated apparent competition in plant-consumer interactions. Ecol. Lett. 13:11–20 [Google Scholar]
  104. Parker IM, Saunders M, Bontrager M, Weitz AP, Hendricks R. et al. 2015. Phylogenetic structure and host abundance drive disease pressure in communities. Nature 520:542–44 [Google Scholar]
  105. Pinto SB, Stainton K, Harris S, Kambris Z, Sutton ER. et al. 2013. Transcriptional regulation of Culex pipiens mosquitoes by Wolbachia influences cytoplasmic incompatibility. PLOS Pathog 9:e1003647 [Google Scholar]
  106. Polis GA, Anderson WB, Holt RD. 1997. Toward an integration of landscape ecology and food web ecology: the dynamics of spatially subsidized food webs. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 28:289–316 [Google Scholar]
  107. Post DM, Takimoto G. 2007. Proximate structural mechanisms for variation in food-chain length. Oikos 116:775–82 [Google Scholar]
  108. Råberg L, de Roode JC, Bell AS, Stamou P, Gray D, Read AF. 2006. The role of immune-mediated apparent competition in genetically diverse malaria infections. Am. Nat. 168:41–53 [Google Scholar]
  109. Ricklefs RE. 2015. Intrinsic dynamics of the regional community. Ecol. Lett. 18:497–503 [Google Scholar]
  110. Rohr JR, Kerby JL, Sih A. 2006. Community ecology as a framework for predicting contaminant effects. Trends Ecol. Evol. 21:606–13 [Google Scholar]
  111. Roslin T, Wirta H, Hopkins T, Hardwick B, Varkonyi G. 2013. Indirect interactions in the high Arctic. PLOS ONE 8:6e67367 [Google Scholar]
  112. Rossberg AG. 2013. Food Webs and Biodiversity: Foundations, Models, Data Oxford, UK: Wiley
  113. Roy SM, Wodarz D. 2014. Tissue architecture, feedback regulation and resilience to viral infection. J. Theor. Biol. 340:131–38 [Google Scholar]
  114. Rudolf VHW, Rassmussen NL. 2013. Ontogenetic functional diversity: size structure of a keystone predator drives functioning of a complex ecosystem. Ecology 94:1046–56 [Google Scholar]
  115. Schartel TE, Schauber EM. 2016. Relative preference and localized food affect predator space use and consumption of incidental prey. PLOS ONE 11:3e0151483 [Google Scholar]
  116. Schemske G, Mittelbach GG, Cornell HV, Sobel JM, Roy K. 2009. Is there a latitudinal gradient in the importance of biotic interactions?. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Evol. Syst. 40:245–69 [Google Scholar]
  117. Schmidt KA. 2004. Incidental predation, enemy-free space and the coexistence of incidental prey. Oikos 106:335–43 [Google Scholar]
  118. Schoen ER, Beauchamp DA, Buettner AR, Overman NC. 2015. Temperature and depth mediate resource competition and apparent competition between Mysis diluviana and kokanee. Ecol. Appl. 25:1962–75 [Google Scholar]
  119. Schreiber S, Rudolf VHW. 2008. Crossing habitat boundaries: coupling dynamics of ecosystems through complex life cycles. Ecol. Lett. 11:576–87 [Google Scholar]
  120. Schreiber SJ, Burger R, Bolnick DI. 2011. The community effects of phenotypic and genetic variation within a predator population. Ecology 92:1582–93 [Google Scholar]
  121. Serrouya R, Wittmann MJ, McLellan BN, Wittmer HU, Boutin S. 2015. Using predator-prey theory to predict outcomes of broadscale experiments to reduce apparent competition. Am. Nat. 185:665–79 [Google Scholar]
  122. Small RJ, Keith LB. 1992. An experimental study of red fox predation on arctic and snowshoe hares. Can. J. Zool. 70:1614–21 [Google Scholar]
  123. Smith LM, Hall S. 2015. Extended leaf phenology may drive plant invasion through direct and apparent competition. Oikos 125:839–48 [Google Scholar]
  124. Strauss A, White A, Boots M. 2012. Invading with biological weapons: the importance of disease-mediated invasions. Funct. Ecol. 26:1249–61 [Google Scholar]
  125. Stuart YE, Losos JB. 2013. Ecological character displacement: glass half full or half empty. Trends Ecol. Evol. 28:402–8 [Google Scholar]
  126. Sundararaj V, McLaren BE, Morris DW, Goyal SP. 2012. Can rare positive interactions become common when large carnivores consume livestock?. Ecology 93:272–80 [Google Scholar]
  127. Tack AJM, Gripenberg S, Roslin T. 2011. Can we predict indirect interactions from quantitative food webs? An experimental approach. J. Anim. Ecol. 80:108–18 [Google Scholar]
  128. Terborgh JW. 2015. Toward a trophic theory of species diversity. PNAS 112:11415–22 [Google Scholar]
  129. Tompkins DM, Draycott RAH, Hudson PJ. 2000. Field evidence for apparent competition mediated via the shared parasites of two gamebird species. Ecol. Lett. 3:10–14 [Google Scholar]
  130. Underwood N, Inouye BD, Hamback PA. 2014. A conceptual framework for associational effects: When do neighbors matter and how would we know. Q. Rev. Biol. 89:1–19 [Google Scholar]
  131. Vance RR. 1978. Predation and resource partitioning in one predator–two prey model communities. Am. Nat. 112:797–813 [Google Scholar]
  132. van Maanen R, Messelink GJ, van Holstein-Saj R, Sablis MW, Janssen A. 2012. Prey temporarily escape from predation in the presence of a second prey species. Ecol. Entomol. 37:529–35 [Google Scholar]
  133. van Nouhuys S, Hanski I. 2000. Apparent competition between parasitoids mediated by a shared hyperparasitoid. Ecol. Lett. 3:82–84 [Google Scholar]
  134. van Veen FJ, Morris RJ, Godfray HCJ. 2006. Apparent competition, quantitative food webs, and the structure of phytophagous insect communities. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 51:187–208 [Google Scholar]
  135. Webb CO, Gilbert GS, Donoghue MJ. 2006. Phylodiversity-dependent seedling mortality, size structure and disease in a Bornean rain forest. Ecology 87:S123–31 [Google Scholar]
  136. Williamson MH. 1957. An elementary theory of interspecific competition. Nature 180:422–25 [Google Scholar]
  137. Wittmer HU, Serrouya R, Elbroch LM, Marshall AJ. 2013. Conservation strategies for species affected by apparent competition. Conserv. Biol. 27:254–60 [Google Scholar]
  138. Wittmer HU, Sinclair ARE, McLellan BN. 2005. The role of predation in the decline and extirpation of woodland caribou. Oecologia 144:257–67 [Google Scholar]
  139. Yamauchi A. 1993. A population dynamic model of Batesian mimicry. Res. Popul. Ecol. 35:295–315 [Google Scholar]
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110316-022628
Loading
/content/journals/10.1146/annurev-ecolsys-110316-022628
Loading

Data & Media loading...

  • Article Type: Review Article
This is a required field
Please enter a valid email address
Approval was a Success
Invalid data
An Error Occurred
Approval was partially successful, following selected items could not be processed due to error