Abstract
Reproductive surgeries leave women more susceptible to postoperative hypervolemic hyponatremia because during this period women can retain water at an accelerated pace and much faster than they do sodium. This review proposes that estrogen and progestogen exposure play an important role in the increased risk of hyponatremia in menopausal women. Estrogen and progesterone exposure have important effects on both body fluid regulation and cardiovascular function and both of these reproductive hormones impact blood pressure responses to sodium loads. This article provides information on the effects of female reproductive hormones and hormone therapy (HT) on fluid regulation and cardiovascular function during menopause. Thirst- and fluid-regulating hormones respond to both osmotic and volume stimuli. Aging women maintain thirst sensitivity to osmotic stimuli but lose some thirst sensitivity to changes in central body fluid volume. Thus, older adults are more at risk of dehydration because they may replenish fluids at a slower rate. Estrogen therapy increases osmotic sensitivity for mechanisms to retain body water so may help menopausal women control body fluids and avoid dehydration. Some progestogens can mitigate estradiol effects on water and sodium retention through competition with aldosterone for the mineralocorticoid receptor and attenuating aldosterone-mediated sodium retention in the distal tubule. However, some progestogens can increase cardiovascular risks. Appropriate balance of these hormones within HT is important to avoid the negative consequences of body fluid and sodium retention, including edema and hypertension.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Arieff AI, Ayus JC. Pathogenesis of hyponatremic encephalopathy. Curr Concepts. Chest. 1993;103(2):607–610.
Ayus JC, Arieff AI. Brain damage and postoperative hyponatre-mia: the role of gender. Neurology. 1996;46(2):323–328.
Ayus JC, Wheeler JM, Arieff AI. Postoperative hyponatremic encephalopathy in menstruent women. An Intern Med. 1992; 117(11):891–897.
Bergeron ME, Ouellet P, Bujold E, et al. The impact of anesthesia on glycine absorption in operative hysteroscopy: a randomized controlled trial. Anesth Analg. 2011;113(4):723–728. 10.1213/ ANE.0b013e31822649d4.
Fraser CL, Arieff AI. Epidemiology, pathophysiology, and management of hyponatremic encephalopathy. Am J Med. 1997; 102(1):67–77.
Fraser CL, Swanson RA. Female sex hormones inhibit volume regulation in rat brain astrocyte culture. Am J Physiol. 1994; 267(4 pt 1):C909–C914.
Amede FJ, James KA, Michelis MF, Gleim GW. Changes in serum sodium, sodium balance, water balance, and plasma hormone levels as the result of pelvic surgery in women. Int Urol Nephrol. 2002;34(4):545–550.
Arieff AI, Ayus JC. Endometiral ablation complicated by fatal hyponatremic encephalopathy. J Amer Med Assoc. 1993; 270(10):1230–1232.
Fieldman NR, Forsling ML, Le Quesne LP. The effect of vasopressin on solute and water excretion during and after surgical operations. Ann Surg. 1985;201(3):383–390.
Agraharkar M, Agraharkar A. Posthysteroscopic hyponatremia: evidence for a multifactorial cause. Am J Kidney Dis. 1997;30(5): 717–719.
Arieff AI. Hyponatremia, convulsions, respiratory arrest, and permanent brain damage after elective surgery in healthy women. N Engl J Med. 1986;314(24):1529–1535.
Fraser CL, Sarnacki P. Na+-K+-ATPase pump function in rat brain synaptosomes is different in males and females. Am J Physiol. 1989;257(2):E284–E289.
Oelkers W, Schoneshofer M, Blumel A. Effects of progesterone and four synthetic progestagens on sodium balance and the renin-aldosterone system in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1974;39(5):882–890.
Oelkers WHK. Drospirenone in combination with estrogens: for contraception and hormone replacement therapy. Climacteric. 2005;8(s3):19–27.
Stachenfeld NS, Silva CS, Keefe DL, Kokoszka CA, Nadel ER. Effects of oral contraceptives on body fluid regulation. J Appl Physiol. 1999;87(3):1016–1025.
Khalil RA. Estrogen, vascular estrogen receptor and hormone therapy in postmenopausal vascular disease. Biochem Pharmacol. 2013;86(12):1627–1642.
Stachenfeld NS. Acute effects of sodium ingestion on thirst and cardiovascular function. Curr Sports Med Rep. 2008;7(4 suppl): S7–S13.
Stachenfeld NS, DiPietro L, Palter SF, Nadel ER. Estrogen influences osmotic secretion of AVP and body water balance in post-menopausal women. Am J Physiol. 1998;274(1):R187–R195.
Stachenfeld NS, Splenser AE, Calzone WL, Taylor MP, Keefe DL. Sex differences in osmotic regulation of AVP and renal sodium handling. J Appl Physiol. 2001;91(4):1893–1901.
Denton D, Shade R, Zamarippa F, Egan G, Blair-West J, McKinley M, Fox P. Correlation of regional cerebral blood flow and change of plasma sodium concentration during genesis and satiation of thirst. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA; 1991, 96, 2532–2537.
Verney E. The antidiuretic hormone and the factors which determine its release. Proc Soc Lond B Biol. 1947;135(878):25–105.
Antunes Rodrigues J, de Castro M, Elias LL, Valenca MM, McCann SM. Neuroendocrine control of body fluid metabolism. Physiol Rev. 2004;84(1):169–208.
McKinley MJ, Cairns MJ, Denton DA, et al. Physiological and pathophysiological influences on thirst. Physiol Behav. 2004; 81(5):795–803.
Stachenfeld NS. Sex hormone effects on body fluid regulation. Exercise Sport Sci Rev. 2008;36(3):152–159.
Heritage AS, Stumpf WE, Sar M, Grant LD. Brainstem catecho-lamine neurons are target sites for sex steroid hormones. Science. 1980;207(4437):1377–1379.
Sar M, Stumpf WE. Simultaneous localization of [3H]estradiol and neurophysin I or arginine vasopressin in hypothalamic neurons demonstrated by a combined technique of dry-mount autoradiography and immunohistochemistry. Neurosci Lett. 1980;17(1-2):179–184.
Ishunina TA, Swaab DF. Vasopressin and oxytocin neurons of the human supraoptic and paraventricular nucleus; size changes in relation to sex and age. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999;84(12):4637–4644.
Stachenfeld NS, Keefe DL. Estrogen effects on osmotic regulation of AVP and fluid balance. Am J Physiol. 2002;283(4):E711–E721.
Mack GW, Weseman CA, Langhans GW, Scherzer H, Gillen CM, Nadel ER. Body fluid balance in dehydrated healthy older men: thirst and renal osmoregulation. J Appl Physiol. 1994;76(4): 1615–1623.
Stachenfeld NS, Mack GW, DiPietro L, Nadel ER. Mechanism for attenuated thirst in aging: role of central volume receptors. Am J Physiol. 1997;272(1):R148–R157.
Akaishi T, Sakuma Y. Estrogen-induced modulation of hypothalamic osmoregulation in female rats. Am J Physiol. 1990;258(4): R924–R929.
Barron WM, Schreiber J, Lindheimer MD. Effect of ovarian sex steroids on osmoregulation and vasopressin secretion in the rat. Am J Physiol. 1986;250(4):E352–E361.
Crowley WR, O’Donohue TL, George JM, Jacobowitz DM. Changes in pituitary oxytocin and vasopressin during the estrous cycle and after ovarian hormones: evidence for mediation by nor-epinephrine. Life Sci. 1978;23(26):2579–2786.
Sladek CD, Somponpun SJ, Oestrogen Receptor β: Role in Neuro-hypophyseal Neurones. J Neuroendocrinol. 2004;16(4):365–371.
Somponpun SJ, Sladek CD. Osmotic regulation of estrogen receptor-beta in rat vasopressin and oxytocin neurons. J Neurosci. 2003;23(10):4261–4269.
Somponpun SJ, Sladek CD. Depletion of oestrogen receptor-β expression in magnocellular arginine vasopressin neurones by hypo-volaemia and dehydration. J Neuroendocrinol. 2004;16(6):544–549.
Blyth BJ, Hauger RL, Purdy RH, Amico JA. The neurosteroid allo-pregnanolone modulates oxytocin expression in the hypo-halamic paraventricular nucleus. Am J Physiol. 2000;278(3):R684–R691.
Lo F, Kaufman S. Effect of 5 alpha-pregnan-3 alpha-ol-20-one on nitric oxide biosynthesis and plasma volume in rats. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2001;280(6):R1902–R1905.
Crowley RS, Amico JA. Gonadal steroid modulation of oxytocin and vasopressin gene expression in the hypothalamus of the osmotically stimulated rat. Endocrinol. 1993;133(6):2711–2718.
Stone JD, Crofton JT, Share L. Sex differences in central cholinergic and angiotensinergic control of vasopressin release. Am J Physiol. 1992;263(5):R1030–R1034.
Studd J, Magos A. Hormone pellet implantation for the menopause and premenstrual syndrome. In: RD Gambrell, editor. Obstetrics Gynecol Clinics North America: The menopause. Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Co.;1987:229–249.
Boschitsch E, Mayerhofer S, Magometschnigg D. Hypertension in women: the role of progesterone and aldosterone. Climacteric. 2010;13(4):307–313.
Cifkova R, Pitha J, Lejskova M, Lanska V, Zecova S. Blood pressure around the menopause: a population study. J Hypertens. 2008;26(10):1976–1982.
Hapgood JP, Africander D, Louw R, Ray RM, Rohwer JM. Potency of progestogens used in hormonal therapy: toward understanding differential actions [published online August 14, 2013]. J Steroid bioch Mol Biol. 2013.
Kuhl H. Mechanisms of sex steroids: future developments. Maturitas. 2004;47(4):285–291.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Stachenfeld, N.S. Hormonal Changes During Menopause and the Impact on Fluid Regulation. Reprod. Sci. 21, 555–561 (2014). https://doi.org/10.1177/1933719113518992
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1933719113518992