Studies in Eighteenth-Century Culture

"StrugglingManfully"throughHenryFielding'sAmelia:Hysteria,Medicine,andtheNovelin Eighteenth-CenturyEngland GLENCOLBURN HenryFielding'smodernreadershave"struggl[ed]manfully"(tobor- rowaphrasefromAmelia'sopeningchapter)toexplainhowtheauthor oftwocomicmasterpiecessuchasJosephAndrewsandTomJonescould haveproducedsuchasentimentalizedfailureasAmelia.Thecriticalcon- sensusinthe1960sand1970swasthatanincoherent,near-hystericalemo- tionalisminAmelianegatesorinterfereswithdieformalachievementsthat makeFielding'searUernovelsmoresatisfying.1LikeRobertAlter,mostcriticswereinclinedtoattributethenovel 's"shrillhortatorytones"tothe"un- fortunateintellectualfashion"of"thecultofsensibility,"withitspreference for"mysteriousandlimitlesspenumbrasofexperience,vaguelyapprehended," ratherthan"alucidvisionoffamiliarreality."2Criticssincethemid-1980s, lessinterestedinthenovel'sformalflawspersethanintheideologicalim- plicationsofthoseflaws,haveagreedwidiTerryCastlethatthenovel's"ge- nericfluctuations"manifestsignificant"inconsistenciesatadeeperlevel." Yettheselatercritics,strugglingtodecidewhetherAmelia'sinconsistencies betrayreactionaryorprogressivetendencies,donotentirelyagreeaboutwhat the"disturbingoscillationsintone,pecuUaritiesofplotandcharacter,[and] generalthematicconfusion"signify.3 ThecriticalreputationofAmeliaraisesimportantquestions.Areweto dismissthenovelasaliteraryfailurebecauseofitsmelodramaticpathos,or isitanimportanttextthatshouldbestudiedforitsrepresentationofthe 87 88/COLBURN socialandpoliticalcontextsinwhichitwasproduced?AndifAmeliaisan importantnovel,shouldweconsideritanessentiallyprogressiveorreaction- arytext? Iproposetoaddressthesequestionsbycomparingtwoostensiblydispar- atekindsofdiscourse:Ameliaandcontemporaneousmedicaltreatisesabout hysteria.4ThepointofsuchacomparisonistodemonstratethaiAmeliaisa "hysterical"textintwosenses.Itisabouthysteria,butitalsoishysterical. Thatis,likethemedicaltreatisesitechoes,thenovelsuccumbsdiscursively tothedisorderthatitseekstodiagnose.Anexaminationofthisdiscursive hysteriademonstratesthatinbothAmeliaandtreatisesonhysteria,anosten- siblyenlightenedandreformistrhetoricisavehicleforpreciselythosetradi- tional,patriarchalbiaseswewouldexpecttherhetorictorejectortranscend.5Likethemedicaltreatises,Ameliaissimultaneouslyprogressiveandconser- vative,rationalandirrational;itbothreaffirmstraditionalideasandem- bracesanewideology.6Thoughthenovelis,asearliercriticshaveinsisted, formallyincoherent,itsemotionalexcessesandself-contradictionsreflectan epistemologythatmayindeedinformapopular"cultofsensibility,"butthat alsoismoreprofoundthanamid-century"intellectualfashion."7Itisdie epistemologyofthe"newmechanicalphilosophy,"associatedwithRobert BoyleandSirIsaacNewton,andpopularizedintheeighteenthcenturyby WhigsofmoderatereligiouspersuasionswhodominatedEngland'spoliti- cal,educational,andreligiousinstitutions.8 AbriefexaminationofhystericalepisodesinAmeliaservestwopur- poses:itillustratesFielding'sfamiUaritywithcontemporarymedicalaccounts (oratleastwithpopulardisseminationsoftheirideas),anditdemonstratesthattheepisodeshaveathematicfunction.Themostexplicitallusiontohysteriainthenovel —Booth'saccountofAmelia'ssuccumbingtothe"Fatigues" ofnursinghimafterhewaswoundedinthesiegeofGibraltar—includesa diagnosisthatcouldalmostbetakenverbatimfromtheperiod'smedicaltrea- tises.BoothtellsMissMathewsthatAmelia'sexertions"addedtotheUn- easinessof[her]Mind,overpoweredherweakSpirits,andthrewherinto oneoftheworstDisorderstiiatcanpossiblyattendaWoman."AmeUa,Bootii says,sufferedfroma"DisorderverycommonamongtheLadies,andour PhysicianshavenotagreeduponitsName.SomecallitdieFeveronthe Spirits,someanervousFever,sometheVapours,andsometheHysterics."9 Booth'sdescriptionaccuratelyreflectsmid-centurymedicalviewsonhyste- ria.Notonlydidphysiciansseldomagreeaboutitsname,buttheyalsodis- agreedaboutitsetiology,diagnosis,andprognosis.10Atthesametime,most medicaltextswrittenbefore1750agreedthat"weakspirits"weretheprimarycauseofhysteria .AsBoothindicatesincallingAmelia's"Distemper" a"CompilationofallDiseasestogether"(122),physiciansalsoagreedthat "StrugglingManfully"throughHenryFielding'sAmelia/89 itsproteannaturemadehysteriadifficulttodiagnosebecauseitsmanypos- siblephysicalsymptoms—gastro-intestinaldiscomfort,chokingsensations, dizziness,fever,heartpalpitations,hotandcoldflashes,convulsions,faint- ing,numbness,anatomicalrigidityanddistortion—imitateddiesymptoms ofotherdisorders.Theyfurtheragreedtiiatthephysicalsymptomswereac- companiedbyparticularmentaloremotionalsymptoms,someofwhichBooth maybereferringtowhenhementionsAmelia's"violentFits,"her"almost Madness,"andherbarely"recover[ing]herSenses"(122):fickleness,pee- vishness,manicmoodswings,episodesofdeliriousravingsorincoherent talk,andparanoia. Hystericalreactionsoccuroftenenoughinthenoveltoraisesuspicion thattheyhaveathematicrole.Indeed,diepervasivenessofthesescenes seemsintendedtoconfirmGeorgeCheyne'sclaimin1733thathysteriahas become"theEnglishMalady."11MissMatiiewsrepeatedlyindulgesinemo- tionaloutbursts,andhersuddenleapsfrom"bewitchingSoftness"to"Fury" (43)manifestthehysteric'stendencytooscillatewildlybetweenopposing emotions.12ThemelancholicMrs.Bennet-Atkinsonrecountsher"longill StateofHealth"(303),theconsequenceofherfirsthusband'sdyingshortly afterhe,too,hadsufferedahystericfit.13Amelia's"gentleSpirits"arerepeatedly "overpowered"by"contendingPassions"(23)thatleaveher"a lifelessCorpse"(104).Suchepisodesarenotnecessarily(ornotsimply) evidencethatFieldinghassuccumbedtomaudlinsentimentalityinwritingAmelia.TheirfrequencyindicatestiiatFieldingintendsdiemtobeevidenceofalargersocialdisorder,whichmightbecharacterizedasacultural hysteria. Fielding'sdiagnosisinAmeliaofahystericalsocietycorrespondstothe socialvisionexpressedincontemporarymedicaltreatises,anditisherethat theseseeminglydifferentkindsofdiscourse—literarynarrativeandmedical analysis—begintoconverge.Thoughphysiciansdisagreedabouttheexact causeofhysteria,mostwereinclinedbymid-centurytolocateitsoriginina weaknessofnerves.14Byextension,theanalogicalcharacterofeighteenth- centuryscientificthinkingencouragedphysicianstobelievethat"[n]euro- logicalchaosinthebodymerelymirroreddiesocialdisorderofthetime."15 Likeothernaturalphilosophiesoftheperiod,medicinehadinheritedfrom theseventeenthcenturyatendencytoseedieworldasanetworkofisomor- phisms.If,asMargaretJacobhasnoted,acommonthemeofdieperiod's naturalphilosophywastheresemblancesbetweenthe"worldnatural"and die"worldpolitick,"acorollarythemeformedicalsciencewasdieresem- blancesbetweenthebodyphysicalanddiebodysocial.16 Theseresemblanceswouldhaveappearedparticularlycompellingtomedi- caltheoristsofhysteriabecausehysteriawas(andcontinuestobe)acontro- 90/COLBURN versialmedicalcategoryratherthanadiscretediseasewithadefinitiveetiol- ogy.,7SusanSontag'sreflectionsonthesocialsignificanceofdiseasehelpto explainhowthemysteryabouttheoriginsofhysteriaallowedeighteendi- centurywriterstoapplyhysteriametaphoricallytotheculture: Thenotionthatadiseasecanbeexplainedonlybyavarietyofcausesis preciselycharacteristicofthinkingaboutdiseaseswhosecausationisnot understood.Anditisdiseasesthoughttobemulti-determined(thatis, mysterious)tiiathavemewidestpossibilitiesasmetaphorsforwhatisfelt tobesocially,ormorally,wrong.18 Itisnotsurprising,then,toseeEdwardStrotiierclaimingin1725mathyste- riaisepidemicbecauseofsocialfashionsdiatencourage"feast[ing]Luxuri- ously,"indolence,and"dieimmoderateuseofteaandcoffee.19Similarly, GeorgeCheyneclaimsin1733thatthecausesofhysteriainclude"In- temperance,wantofdueExercise,riotinginsensualPleasures,[and]casual excessiveEvacuationsofanyKind,"abusesmadefashionablebyasociety tiiatvalues"continu'dLuxuryandLaziness."20Inmostcases,physicians tracetheincreasedincidenceofhysteriatoagenerallackofnerve,tiiatis, sociallyencouragedself-indulgenceandunwillingnesstorestraindesiresand passions.21 Bymid-century,G.S.Rousseausuggests,notonlyhaddienervebecomediemostimportant"linguistictrope...forphilosophicalandscientificanal- ogy,"but"dierhetoricofthenervehadinvadedalldierealmsofEnglish proseandpoetry."22Ame//a,likethemedicaltreatises,thereforetreatsindividualinstancesofhysteriaassymptomsofalargerlackofnerve .Inthe openingchapterofthenovel,thenarratorrejectsthe"InventionwhichSu- perstitionhatii...attributedtoFortune":"ifMenaresometimesguiltyof layingimproperBlameonthisimaginaryBeing,theyarealtogetherasaptto makeherAmendsbyascribingtoherHonourswhichsheaslittledeserves" (16).Theproblem,Fieldingimplies,istiiatpeoplearewillingneitherto acceptresponsibilityfortheconsequencesoftheiractionsnortoacknowl- edgetiiatotiiers'successesaretheconsequenceofperseverance.Theyrefuse toseethat"Miseries"usuallyaretheresultof"quittingtheDirectionsof Prudence,andfollowingdieblindGuidanceofapredominantPassion"(16). Instead,dieyprefertoinvokeoccultforcessuchas"fortune"toaccountfor theirownfailuresandodiers'triumphs.Booth'scharacterepitomizesthe generalproblem,becausehis"DoctrineofthePassions"(109)allowshimto believemat"everyManact[s]merelyfromtheForceofthatPassionwhich [is]uppermostinhisMind,and[can]donoomerwise"(32).Certainly,Boodi issometimesavictimofforcesbeyondhiscontrol.Heisunjusdyimprisoned byacorruptjustice,andhissister-in-law'sfraudulentexecutionofMrs. "StrugglingManfully"throughHenryFielding'sAmeUa/91 Harris'swillkeepsBoothandAmeliainpoveny.ButBootiiisequallyre- sponsibleforhistroublesbecausehebelieveshimselfunabletocontrolhis passions,evenclaimingthathecannothelphimselfbecausehisheartis"com- bustibleMatter"(69).Inbuyingacoachthathecannotafford,heindulges whatDr.Harrisoncallsa"criminalVanity"(165).His"loveofGaming" (36)leadshimoncetolosewhatUttlemoneyhehas(41)andlatertogointo debtmoredeeplythanhecanrepay(432-33).Hesometimesdrinksintemperatelyandasaconsequenceactsrashly .Inotherwords,Fieldingshows thatBooth'simprudentself-indulgenceexacerbateshispovertyandlegal troubles,justasStrotherandCheyneclaimthatluxuriesexacerbatehysteria. Fielding'sdiagnosisofculturalhysteriaagreeswithdiephysicians'views notonlyinitsidentificationofself-indulgenceastheimmediatecause,but alsoinitsidentificationofprideastheoriginalcause.BernardMandeville claimsthathysteriapersistsbecause"Pride...makesthePhysician...take upwiththelooseConjecturesofhisownwanderingInvention"and"makes [patients]inlovewiththeReasoningPhysician,tohaveanOpportunityof shewingtheDepthof[their]ownPenetration."23Theproblem,accordingto Mandeville,isthatdieself-aggrandizingphysicianistooapttogivepatients whattheywanttohear:deterministicexplanationsbasedonhermeticrea- soningratherthandiesalutaryprescriptionofself-restraint.Similarly,Booth's beliefthat"alargerShareofMisfortuneshadfallentohisLotthanhemer- ited"is"adangerousWayofreasoning,"Fieldingsays,becauseitis"Uable tomuchErrorfromPartialitytoourselves;viewingourVirtuesandVicesas tiiroughaPerspective,inwhichweturntheGlassalwaystoourownAdvan- tage"(31).LikeMandeville'shysterics,Bootiimissestheplainremedyto hisplightbecausehispridesuggeststohimthathesuffersunjustlythrough influences(thepassions,fortune,fate,themaliceofothers)beyondhiscon- trol. ThoughdienarratorofAmeliaandwritersofmedicaltreatisespretendto diagnoseculturalhysteriafromapositionoutsideorabovethatculture,these textsbelong,ofcourse,totheveryculturetheyarediagnosing.Consequendy, whenAmeliaandthemedicaltreatisesdiagnosetheircultureashysterical, theyalsoimplicatethemselvesinthedisorder.Sincebothkindsoftextscon- frontepistemologica!andmoralcrisesmatMichaelMcKeonhascalled"ques- tionsoftruth"and"questionsofvirtue,"McKeon'sdescriptionofdienovelasacultural"mediator"canbeappliedtodieperiod'smedicaltreatisesabouthysteria:intendedto"resolve...problemsofcategorialinstability,"each treatise"alsoinevitablyreflects"theunstabledisorderitaddresses.24Thistextual"instability,"whichIwillcalldiscursivehysteria,arisesinboththe medicaltreatisesandAmeliawhenthewritersattempttoproduceempiri-callyaccuratenarrativesthatfaithfullyrecordobservable,uniquesituations 92/COLBURN andyetalsorevealanabstract,universalreality.Tounderstandhowthetexts becomehysterical,then,weneedtoexaminethewaysinwhichtheydeter- mine"[w]hatkindofauthorityorevidenceisrequiredofnarrativetopermit ittosignifytruthtoitsreaders."25 The"newscience,"thedominantdiscoursewherebyeighteenth-century naturalphilosopherssoughttosignifytruth,hasbeendescribedbyMargaret Jacobasa"synthesisofphilosophyandexperimentalmethod"inwhich"the interactionofexperimentsandhypothesesproduc[e]probableexplanations, intheendlawsofnaturethat[can]beappliedtootherphenomena,previ- ouslyunexplored."26Inthemedicaltreatisesoftheperiod(likeothertextsof naturalphilosophy),thissynthesisislabeled"history."ThomasSydenham callshistreatiseof1682a"shortHistoryoftheDiseaseaccordingtothetrue PhaenomenaofNature."27Similarclaimsforthepresentationof"thehistory ofdiseases"canbefoundinJohnPurcell'streatiseof1702,Bernard Mandeville'streatiseof1704,andPeterShaw'streatiseof1726.28Butas MauriceMandelbaumhassuggestedinhisstudyofJohnLocke'sconception ofthe'historical'method,"historyisnotamonolidiicconceptfortheperiod. ItmaydesignateSydenham'smetiiod,"whichpresumablydidnotseekex- planations,evenintheformofempiricalhypotheses,butconfineditselfto rulesofpracticebasedonpastobservation,"oritmayderivefromBoyle, "forwhom'ahistory'didnotstandopposedtoanexperimentalinquiry,but wasameansofreachingortestinganempiricalhypothesis."29Theperiod's "naturalhistories,"then,neednotbesimplycompilationsofobservations. Theymaybecarefullyplotted,empiricalnarrativesinformedbyanepiste- mologica!tensionbetweentwokindsoftruth:observationofsymptomsand hypothesesaboutcauses. WriterslikeSydenhamgenerallyexpresstheinductivesideofthisepiste- mologica!dialecticinpolemicaltones,withtheconsequencethattheyseem tobediscountinganyknowledgetiiatdoesnotderivedirectlyfromobserva- tion.SydenhamcitesdieauthorityofFrancisBaconforbasing"aHistoryorDescriptionofDiseases"onobservationandexperienceratherthanrelying on"everyPhilosophicalHypothesisthathasinveigled[themedical]Writer's Mind."30Mandevilleinitiallydefinestheempiricalprocessasadialectical processthatbalances"ExperiencemadebytheSenses"against"reasoning" about"theCausesoftheEffectswefind";butthenhecautionsthatsince"no bodycanbesurethatheisintheright,'tillafterhehasbeenconvincedoftheSolidityofhisReasoningbythesameExperience,provingandconfirming thesaidReasoningwithmatterofFact,"weoughttohavestrongreserva- tionsabouthypothesizing:"HowlittleandprecariousaUseatthisrateReasoningisofinPhysick ,ifcomparedtotheabsoluteNecessityofExperi- ence."31Shawwarnsthathisreadersare"nottoexpectanyhypotheticalrea- "StrugglingManfully"throughHenryFielding'sAmelia/93 soning,orsolutionsofphaenomena;butnakedmatterofscience,delivered inplainandsimplelanguage,"andheclaimstiiat"uncertainreasonings,and astudiedstyle...,insteadofinstructingusinthecureofdiseases,willrather teachustoharangueuponthem."32RichardManningham...