Abstract
Objectives
The use of imagery to improve golf performance is well established and recognised as a key psychological technique in developing and maintaining excellence. However, the relationship between a golfer’s imagery ability and their imagery use is still poorly understood. The current study examined differences in participants vividness of movement imagery and imagery use and the extent their vividness of movement imagery predicted functions of imagery use.
Methods
One hundred and one male skilled golfers (Mage=27.80, SD=11.03) with CONGU recognised handicaps ranging from plus 4 to 5 (Mhandicap=1.32, SD=2.74) completed both the Vividness of Movement Imagery Questionnaire-2 (Roberts, R., Callow, N., Hardy, L., Markland, D., & Bringer, J. (2008). Movement imagery ability: Development and assessment of a revised version of the vividness of movement imagery questionnaire. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 30(2), 200–221) and Sports Imagery Questionnaire (Hall, C. R., Mack, D. E., Paivio, A., & Hauesenblas, H. A. (1998). Imagery use by athletes: Development of the sport imagery questionnaire. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 29, 73–89).
Results
The results demonstrated no significant differences between Internal and External visual imagery, however, Kinaesthetic imagery scores were significantly higher than External visual imagery scores. Significant differences in imagery use were recorded with participants reporting higher Cognitive specific imagery use scores compared to other functions of imagery use. Regression analyses indicted that golf handicap accounted for 12% in the variance of Cognitive specific imagery use with an additional 12% accounted for by Internal visual imagery and 7% Kinaesthetic imagery. For Cognitive general imagery use golf handicap accounted for 4% of the variance with Internal visual imagery adding a further 5% to the model.
Conclusions
Our findings highlight that vividness of movement imagery; specifically, Internal and Kinaesthetic imagery ability are significant predictors of skilled golfers Cognitive specific and Cognitive general imagery use.
-
Research funding: None declared.
-
Author contributions: All authors have accepted responsibility for the entire content of this manuscript and approved its submission.
-
Competing interests: Authors state no conflict of interest.
References
Baddeley, A. D., & Andrade, J. (2000). Working memory and the vividness of imagery. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 129(1), 126–145. https://doi.org/10.1037/0096-3445.129.1.126.Search in Google Scholar
Bernier, M., & Fournier, J. F. (2010). Functions of mental imagery in expert golfers. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11(6), 444–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.05.006.Search in Google Scholar
Brouziyne, M., & Molinaro, C. (2005). Mental imagery combined with physical practice of approach shots for golf beginners. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 10(1), 203–211. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.101.1.203-211.Search in Google Scholar
Callow, N., Jiang, D., Roberts, R., & Edwards, M. (2017). Kinesthetic imagery provides additive benefits to internal visual imagery on slalom task performance. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 39(1), 81–86. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.2016-0168.Search in Google Scholar
Callow, N., & Roberts, R. (2010). Imagery research: An investigation of three issues. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 11(4), 325–329. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2010.03.002.Search in Google Scholar
Carroll, R. J. (2017). Transformation and weighting in regression. Routledge: Chapman & Hall.Search in Google Scholar
Collet, C., Guillot, A., Lebon, F., MacIntyre, T., & Moran, A. (2011). Measuring motor imagery using psychometric, behavioral, and psychophysiological tools. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 39(2), 85–92. https://doi.org/10.1097/JES.0b013e31820ac5e0.Search in Google Scholar
Cumming, J., Nordin, S. M., Horton, R., & Reynolds, S. (2006). Examining the direction of imagery and self-talk on dart-throwing performance and self-efficacy. The Sport Psychologist, 20(3), 257–274. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.20.3.257.Search in Google Scholar
Cumming, J., & Williams, S. E. (2013). Introducing the revised applied model of deliberate imagery use for sport, dance, exercise, and rehabilitation. Movement & Sport Sciences, 82, 69–81. https://doi.org/10.1051/sm/2013098.Search in Google Scholar
Dana, A., & Gozalzadeh, E. (2017). Internal and external imagery effects on tennis skills among novices. Perceptual & Motor Skills, 124(5), 1022–1043. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031512517719611.Search in Google Scholar
Fournier, J. F., Deremaux, S., & Bernier, M. (2008). Content, characteristics and function of mental images. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 9(6), 734–748. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2007.12.003.Search in Google Scholar
Ghasemi, A., & Zahediasl, S. (2012). Normality tests for statistical analysis: A guide for non-statisticians. International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism, 10(2), 486–489. https://doi.org/10.5812/ijem.3505.Search in Google Scholar
Gregg, M., & Hall, C. (2006a). The relationship of skill level and age to the use of imagery by golfers. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 18(4), 363–375. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200600944140.Search in Google Scholar
Gregg, M., & Hall, C. (2006b). Measurement of motivational imagery abilities in sport. Journal of Sports Sciences, 24(9), 961–971. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640410500386167.Search in Google Scholar
Gregg, M., Hall, C., McGowen, E., & Hall, N. (2011). The relationship between imagery ability and imagery use among athletes. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 23(2), 129–141. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2010.544279.Search in Google Scholar
Gregg, M., Hall, C., & Nederhof, E. (2005). The imagery ability, imagery use and performance relationship. The Sport Psychologist, 19, 93–99. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.19.1.93.Search in Google Scholar
Hall, C. R., Mack, D. E., Paivio, A., & Hauesenblas, H. A. (1998). Imagery use by athletes: Development of the sport imagery questionnaire. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 29, 73–89.10.1037/t52953-000Search in Google Scholar
Hall, C. R., & Martin, K. A. (1997). Measuring movement imagery abilities: A revision of the movement imagery questionnaire. Journal of Mental Imagery, 21, 143–154.10.1037/t07979-000Search in Google Scholar
Hall, C. R., Pongrac, J., & Buckolz, E. (1985). The measurement of imagery ability. Human Movement Science, 4(2), 107–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-9457(85)90006-5.Search in Google Scholar
Hardy, L., & Jones, G. (1994). Current issues and future directions for performance-related research in sport psychology. Journal of Sports Sciences, 12(1), 61–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640419408732158.Search in Google Scholar
Marks, D. F., & Isaac., A. R. (1995). The topographical distribution of EEG activity accompanying visual and motor imagery in vivid and non-vivid imagers. British Journal of Psychology, 86(2), 272–282. doi:10.111/j.2044-8295.1995.tb02561.x.10.1111/j.2044-8295.1995.tb02561.xSearch in Google Scholar PubMed
Marshall, B., & Wright, D. J. (2016). Layered stimulus response training versus combined action observation and imagery: Effects on golf putting performance and imagery ability characteristics. Journal of Imagery Research in Sport and Physical Activity, 11, 35–46. https://doi.org/10.1515/jirspa-2016-0007.Search in Google Scholar
Martin, K. A., Moritz, S. E., & Hall, C. (1999). Imagery use in sport: A literature review and applied model. The Sport Psychologist, 13(3), 245–268. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.13.3.245.Search in Google Scholar
McCaffrey, N., & Orlick, T. (1989). Mental factors related to excellence among top professional golfers. International Journal of Sport Psychology, 20, 256–276.Search in Google Scholar
McLean, N., & Richardson, A. (1994). The role of imagery in perfecting already learned physical skills. In A. A. Sheikh, & E. R. Korn (Eds.), Imagery in sports and physical performance (pp. 59–73). Amityville, NY: Baywood Publishing.Search in Google Scholar
Murphy, S., Nordin, S. M., & Cumming, J. (2008). Imagery in sport, exercise and dance. In T. Horn (Ed.), Advances in sport and exercise psychology (3rd ed., pp. 297–324). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.Search in Google Scholar
Nicklaus, J. (1974). Golf my way. London: William Heinemann Ltd.Search in Google Scholar
Nordin, S. M., & Cumming, J. (2008). Types and functions of athletes imagery: Testing predictions from the applied model of imagery use by examining effectiveness. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 6(2), 189–206. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2008.9671861.Search in Google Scholar
Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.Search in Google Scholar
Paivio, A. (1985). Cognitive and motivational functions of imagery in human performance. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences, 10, 22S–28S.Search in Google Scholar
Parker, J. K., & Lovell, G. P. (2009). Characteristics affecting the use of imagery: A youth sports academy study. Journal of Imagery Research in Sport and Physical Activity, 4, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.2202/1932-0191.1034.Search in Google Scholar
Parker, J. K., & Lovell, G. (2011). The influence of experience upon imagery perspective in adolescent sport performers. Journal of Imagery Research in Sport and Physical Activity, 6, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.2202/1932-0191.1048.Search in Google Scholar
Parker, J. K., & Lovell, G. (2012). Age differences in the vividness of youth sport performers imagery ability. Journal of Imagery Research in Sport and Physical Activity, 7, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1515/1932-0191.1069.Search in Google Scholar
Roberts, R., Callow, N., Hardy, L., Markland, D., & Bringer, J. (2008). Movement imagery ability: Development and assessment of a revised version of the vividness of movement imagery question-naire. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 30(2), 200–221. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.30.2.200.Search in Google Scholar
Simonsmeier, B. A., & Buecker, S. (2017). Interrelations of imagery use, imagery ability, and performance in young athletes. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 29(1), 32–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2016.1187686.Search in Google Scholar
Simpson, J., Munroe-Chandler, K. J., & Paradis, K. J. (2020). The relationship between passion and imagery use in competitive youth gymnastics. Science of Gymnastics Journal, 12(1), 49–59.10.52165/sgj.12.1.49-59Search in Google Scholar
Slimani, M., Chamari, K., Boudhiba, D., & Chéour, F. (2016). Mediator and moderator variables of imagery use-motor learning and sport performance relationships: A narrative review. Sport Sciences for Health, 12(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11332-016-0265-1.Search in Google Scholar
Smith, D., Wright, C. J., & Cantwell, C. (2008). Beating the bunker: The effect of PETTLEP on golf bunker shot performance. Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, 79(3), 385–391. https://doi.org/10.1080/02701367.2008.10599502.Search in Google Scholar
Spittle, M., & Morris, T. (1999a). Training of imagery perspectives. In Proceedings of the 5th International Olympic Committee world Congress on Sport Sciences. Sydney, Australia (p. 142).Search in Google Scholar
Spittle, M., & Morris, T. (2000). Imagery perspective preferences and motor performance. Australian Journal of Psychology, 52S, 112.Search in Google Scholar
Swainston, S., Gentner, N., Biber, D., Czech, D. R., Joyner, B., & Easton, L. E. (2012). The effect of PETTLEP imagery in pre-shot routine on full swing golf shot accuracy: A single subject design. International Journal of Golf Science, 1(2), 140–163.10.1123/ijgs.1.2.140Search in Google Scholar
Thomas, P. R., & Fogarty, G. J. (1997). Psychological skills training in golf: The role of individual differences in cognitive preferences. The Sport Psychologist, 11(1), 86–106. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.11.1.86.Search in Google Scholar
White, A., & Hardy, L. (1995). Use of different imagery perspectives on the learning and performance of different motor-skills. British Journal of Psychology, 86, 169–180. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8295.1995.tb02554.x.Search in Google Scholar
White, A., & Hardy, L. (1998). An in-depth analysis of the uses of imagery by high-level slalom canoeists and artistic gymnasts. The Sport Psychologist, 12(4), 387–403. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.12.4.387.Search in Google Scholar
Williams, S. E., & Cumming, J. (2011). Measuring athlete imagery ability: The sport imagery ability questionnaire. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 33(3), 416–440. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.33.3.416.Search in Google Scholar
Williams, S. E., Cumming, J., Ntoumanis, N., Nordin-Bates, S. M., Ramsey, R., & Hall, C. (2012). Further validation and development of the movement imagery questionnaire. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 34(5), 621–646. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.34.5.621.Search in Google Scholar
Woolfolk, R. L., Parrish, M. W., & Murphy, S. M. (1985). The effects of positive and negative imagery on motor skill performance. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 9, 335–341. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01183852.Search in Google Scholar
© 2021 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
