Abstract
Studies on the grammaticalization of body-part nouns into reflexives have often formulated cross-linguistic generalizations, but have mostly failed to provide detailed analyses of similar developments attested in unrelated languages. As a consequence, valuable insights have sometimes been overlooked. The purpose of this paper is twofold: on the one hand, it identifies a higher number of languages using “head”-reflexives than previous accounts. On the other hand, its purpose is to analyze the diachronic evolution of nouns denoting “head” into reflexive markers in three unrelated language groups (Basque, Berber and Kartvelian) and to show how “head”-reflexives synchronically and diachronically interact with secondary reflexivization strategies, such as detransitivization. The results suggest that the areal factor has a considerable impact on the emergence of “head”-reflexives; they also show that none of the languages analyzed reflects all grammaticalization stages put forward in the literature. Accordingly, it is argued that the grammaticalization stages are optional, and that the correlation between formal and semantic change is not obligatory.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their deepest gratitude to Iván Igartua, Nerea Madariaga, Patxi Salaberri, Carlos García Castillero, Reinhard Stempel, Soso Danelia, Tajiri Ali, the editors and four anonymous reviewers for their valuable comments and corrections on earlier versions of this paper. The authors would also like to thank Suzanne Kemmer for granting permission to reprint Figure 1. Contribution of the authors: both authors were equally involved in the preparation and revision of the paper, so that both are in every sense the first authors.
Appendix of languages with “head”-reflexives [18]
Languages whose reflexive strategy originates in a noun denoting “head”.
| Language | Marker | Status | Alternative strategy | Reconstructed form | Area |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Abaza | -xə | Affix | Affix ɕə- “self” | None | EuAs |
| Abkhaz | -xə | Affix | Affix -čə́- “self” with verbs other than “to like” and “to eat” | None | EuAs |
| Adyghe (West Circassian, Shapsug dialect) | zə- | Affix | None | None | EuAs |
| Amharic | ras | Noun | None | Proto-Semitic *ra’s “head” | Af |
| Angolar | n'tê | Noun | Noun ôngê “body” | None | Af |
| Awngi | NiNara-sa | Noun | None | None | Af |
| Bahamian Creole | head | Noun | None | English head | NAm |
| Bamun (Shupamem) | tú ŋwát “head-body” | Noun | Noun ŋwát “body” | None | Af |
| Basque | buru | Noun | Detransitivization | None | EuAs |
| Batsbi (Tsova-Tush) | kort | Noun | Case-inflected pers. pronouns | Proto-Nakh-Daghestan *kort- “head” | EuAs |
| Ben Tey Dogon (Beni Dogon) | kû: | Noun | Case-inflected pers. pron. (1st, 2nd pers.), refl. pron. á, â: “self” (3rd pers.) | None | Af |
| Bunoge Dogon | kò | Noun | None | None | Af |
| Cape Verdean Creole of Brava | kabesa | Noun | None | Portuguese cabeça “head” | Af |
| Cape Verdean Creole of Santiago Island (Kabuverdiano) | cabeça, kabɛsa | Noun | None | Portuguese cabeça “head” | Af |
| Cape Verdean Creole of São Vicente | kabésa | Noun | None | Portuguese cabeça “head” | Af |
| Casamancese Creole (Sorosoro, Ziguinchor) | kabesa | Noun | None | Portuguese cabeça “head” | Af |
| Dime | mát | Noun | None | None | Af |
| Diola (Dyola, Diola-Fogni, Jola) | huko | Noun | None | None | Af |
| Dogul Dom Dogon | kî:g, kí:gù | Noun | Verbal reflexive | None | Af |
| Donno So (Kamma So) | kû: | Noun | Verbal reflexive, refl. pron. sama “self” | None | Af |
| Eastern Oromo (Harar) | mataa | Noun | Verbal reflexive, pron. if(i) “self, own” | None | Af |
| Erzya (Mordvin) | prä | Noun | Verbal reflexive | None | EuAs |
| Figuig | ixf | Noun | Verbal reflexive, emph. pron. iman “soul” | Proto-Berber *e-qăf, *e-ɣăf “head” | Af |
| Georgian | tavi | Noun | Verbal reflexive | Proto-Kartvelian *taw- “head” | Eu |
| Guinea-Bissau Creole (Kriyol) | kabesa | Noun | None | Portuguese cabeça “head” | Af |
| Guruntum-Mbaaru | gaŋ | Noun | Except for 1. sg, pron. àni/àaŋ “head” | None | Af |
| Haitian Creole French (Northern, Southern, Western) | tèt | Noun | Noun ko “body” | French tête “head” | NAm |
| Hassaniyya Arabic | ṛāṣ | Noun | None | Proto-Semitic *ra’s “head” | Af |
| Hausa | kâi, kaì | Noun | None | Proto-West Chadic *kwal- “head’ | Af |
| Humburi Senni (Central Songhay) | bòŋ | Noun | None | None | Af |
| Kabardian (East Circassian) | -ɕḥa- | Affix | Inceptive aff. -q'ə-, za-, žə-, pron. yazə “self” | Proto-Circassian *śḥa- “head” | EuAs |
| Kanuri (Central Kanuri) | kəla | Noun | Verbal reflexive, noun ro “life” | None | Af |
| K’emant (Agaw, Qemant) | -aghoy, -aɤʷäy | Noun | None | None | Af |
| Koyra Chiini | bomo | Noun | Emph. noun huneyno “body” | None | Af |
| Koyraboro Senni | boŋ | Noun | Emph. noun hundey “body” | None | Af |
| Kunama | ana | Noun | None | None | Af |
| Kwaami | kúu | Noun | None | Proto-West Chadic *kwal- “head” | Af |
| Laz (Arhavi dialect) | ti | Noun | Verbal reflexive, pron. muk “what” | Proto-Kartvelian *taw- “head” | EuAs |
| Lele | cà | Noun | None | None | Af |
| Limbum | tu | Noun | Noun nyor “body” with verb sù’si “to wash” | None | Af |
| Louisiana Creole French | la tête | Noun | None | French la tête “the head” | NAm |
| Maasina Fulfulde (Fulani, Fulfulde) | hoore | Noun | In plurals, noun ko'e “head” | None | Af |
| Marghi | kə́r | Noun | Noun údzú “body” | None | Af |
| Mauritian Creole (Rodriguan Creole French) | latet | Noun | None | French la tête “the head” | Af |
| Megrelian | dudi | Noun | Verbal reflexive, pron. muk “what” | Proto-Kartvelian *dud- “summit” | EuAs |
| Mina (Kposo) | tàláŋ | Noun | Noun ksə̀m “body” | None | Af |
| Miya | ghàm | Noun | Noun áakaayi “head”, calque of Hausa kâi | None | Af |
| Moksha (Mordvin) | prä | Noun | Verbal reflexive | None | EuAs |
| Moroccan Arabic | ṛāṣ | Noun | None | Proto-Semitic *ra’s “head” | Af |
| Najamba-Kindige (Najamba dialect) | kî: | Noun | None | None | Af |
| Nicaraguan Creole English | hed | Noun | None | English head | NAm |
| Ouargli (Ouargla) | ixf, iɣef | Noun | Verbal reflexive | Proto-Berber *e-qăf, *e-ɣăf “head” | Af |
| Parkwa | mudára, mudárə | Noun | None | None | Af |
| Penange | kó: | Noun | None | None | Af |
| Pero | kó | Noun | Noun cíg “body’ | Proto-West Chadic *kwal- “head” | Af |
| Pichi (Fernando Po Creole English) | hed | Noun | Nouns sɛf “self”, skin “body” and bɔdi “body” | English head | Af |
| Principense Creole (Lung'ie) | kabese | Noun | Noun igbê “body” | Portuguese cabeça “head” | Af |
| Pulaar (Fulacunda, Toucouleur) | koye | Noun | None | None | Af |
| Sereer (Sérèr) | xoox | Noun | Verbal reflexive -u, -oox | None | Af |
| Soninké | í- | Affix | Emph. noun yínmé “head” | None | Af |
| Svan | txwim | Noun | Verbal reflexive, demonstr. ǯa | Proto-Kartvelian *txem- “tip” | EuAs |
| Tashelhiyt (Tachelhit, Susiua) | ixf | Noun | Verbal reflexive, noun agaiu “head” | Proto-Berber *e-qăf, *e-ɣăf “head” | Af |
| Tamazight (Central) | ixf | Noun | Verbal reflexive | Proto-Berber *e-qăf, *e-ɣăf “head” | Af |
| Tamazight (Southern) | ixf | Noun | Verbal reflexive | Proto-Berber *e-qăf, *e-ɣăf “head” | Af |
| Tarifiyt | ixef | Noun | Verbal reflexive, detrans. aff. n(u)-, recipr./pass./emph. aff. (e)m(l)- | Proto-Berber *e-qăf, *e-ɣăf “head” | Af |
| Tigre | ra’as | Noun | None | Proto-Semitic *ra’s “head” | Af |
| Tigrinya | r’èsi | Noun | Noun näfsi “soul” | Proto-Semitic *ra’s “head” | Af |
| Tok Pisin | yet | Noun | Verbal reflexive | English head | Oc |
| Tommo So Dogon | kúú | Noun | None | None | Af |
| Toro Tegu Dogon (Tabi mountain dialect) | kú | Noun | None | None | Af |
| Ubykh | -xə | Affix | Affix za- “self” with verbs other than “to like” and “to eat” | None | EuAs |
| Wolof | bob, bopp | Noun | None | None | Af |
| Yanda Dom Dogon | kó: | Noun | Case-inflected pers. pron. (1st, 2nd pers.), refl. pron. á “self” (3rd pers.) | None | Af |
| Zenaga | iʔf | Noun | Verbal reflexive | Proto-Berber *e-qăf, *e-ɣăf “head” | Af |
| !Xun (W2 dialect) | 'nǀē | Noun | Noun ǀ'ē “body” | None | Af |
References to the appendix
Ali, Mohammed & Andrzej Zaborski. 1990. Handbook of the Oromo language. Warsaw/Cracow: Polska Akademia Nauk.Search in Google Scholar
Colarusso, John. 1992. A grammar of the Kabardian language. Calgary: University of Calgary Press.10.2307/j.ctv6gqvr4Search in Google Scholar
Elouazizi, Noureddine. 2000. Notes on the clausal structure of Guezenaya Tarifyt Berber. Vancouver: Simon Fraser University.Search in Google Scholar
Fähnrich, Heinz. 2007. Kartwelisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Leiden/Boston: Brill.10.1163/ej.9789004161092.i-874Search in Google Scholar
Faye, Souleymane & Maarten Mous. 2006. Verbal system and diathesis derivations in Seereer. Africana Linguistica 12, 89–112.10.3406/aflin.2006.963Search in Google Scholar
Genušienė, Emma. 1987. The typology of reflexives. New York: Mouton de Gruyter.10.1515/9783110859119Search in Google Scholar
Girier, Christian. 1996. Parlons Soninké. Paris: L'Harmattan.Search in Google Scholar
Goldenberg, Gideon. 1991. “Oneself”, “one's own” and “one another” in Amharic. In Alan S. Kaye & Wolf Leslau (eds.), Semitic studies in honor of Wolf Leslau on the occasion of his eighty-fifth birthday, November 14th, 1991, 1, 531–549.Search in Google Scholar
Harris, Alice C. 1985. Diachronic syntax: the Kartvelian case. New York: Academic Press.10.1163/9789004373143Search in Google Scholar
Heath, Jeffrey. 1999. A grammar of Koyra Chiini, the Songhay of Timbuktu. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.10.1515/9783110804850Search in Google Scholar
Heath, Jeffrey. 2014. Grammar of Humburi Senni. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute.Search in Google Scholar
Heath, Jeffrey. 2015a. A grammar of Ben Tey (Dogon of Beni). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.Search in Google Scholar
Heath, Jeffrey. 2015b. A grammar of Toro Tegu (Dogon): Tabi mountain dialect. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.Search in Google Scholar
Heath, Jeffrey. 2016a. A grammar of Bunoge (Dogon, Mali). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.Search in Google Scholar
Heath, Jeffrey. 2016b. A grammar of Penange (Dogon, Mali). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.Search in Google Scholar
Heath, Jeffrey. 2016c. A grammar of Donno So or Kamma So (Dogon language family, Mali). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.Search in Google Scholar
Heath, Jeffrey. 2016d. A grammar of Dogul Dom (Dogon language family, Mali). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.Search in Google Scholar
Heath, Jeffrey. 2017a. A grammar of Yanda Dom (Dogon, Mali). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.Search in Google Scholar
Heath, Jeffrey. 2017b. A grammar of Najamba (Dogon, Mali). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan.Search in Google Scholar
Heine, Bernd. 1999. Polysemy involving reflexive and reciprocal markers in African languages. In Zygmunt Frajzyngier & Tracy Curl (eds.), Reciprocals: Forms and functions, 1–29. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.10.1075/tsl.41.02heiSearch in Google Scholar
Heine, Bernd. 2005. On reflexive forms in creoles. Lingua 115, 201–257.10.1016/j.lingua.2003.10.003Search in Google Scholar
Heine, Bernd. 2011. Areas of grammaticalization and geographical typology. In Osamu Heida, Christa König & Hiros Nakagawa (eds.), Geographical typology and linguistic areas: with special reference to Africa, 41–66. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.10.1075/tufs.2.06heiSearch in Google Scholar
Heine, Bernd. 2014. The body in language: observations from grammaticalization. In Matthias Brenzinger & Iwona Kraska-Szlenk (eds.), The body in language: comparative studies of linguistic embodiment, 13–32. Leiden/Boston: Brill.Search in Google Scholar
Holisky, DeeAnn & Rusudan Gagua. 1994. Tsova-Tush (Batsbi). In Rieks Smeets (ed.), The indigenous languages of the Caucasusvolume 4: The North East Caucasian Languages, part 2: Presenting the three Nakh languages and six minor Lezgian languages 147–212. Delmar: Caravan.Search in Google Scholar
Holm, John. 2004. An introduction to pidgins and creoles. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Ibarretxe-Antuñano, Iraide. 2002. The conceptual structure of Basque buru “head”. Fontes Linguae Vasconum 91, 463–492.Search in Google Scholar
Jacobs, Bart. 2012. Origins of a creole: the history of Papiamentu and its African ties. Boston/Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.10.1515/9781614511076Search in Google Scholar
Lefebvre, Claire. 1998. Creole genesis and the acquisition of grammar: the case of Haitian creole. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511519826Search in Google Scholar
McPherson, Laura. 2013. A grammar of Tommo So. Berlin/Boston: Mouton de Gruyter.10.1515/eegSearch in Google Scholar
Mengistu, Taddesse. 1984. The noun phrase in Awngi. Addis Ababa: Addis Ababa University MA thesis.Search in Google Scholar
Michaelis, Susanne M., Philippe Maurer, Martin Haspelmath & Magnus Huber. 2013. Atlas of Pidgin and Creole Language Structures Online. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute (accessed throughout August-December 2017).Search in Google Scholar
Moravcsik, Edith. 1972. Some cross-linguistic generalizations about intensifier constructions. Chicago Linguistic Society 8, 271–277.Search in Google Scholar
Nchare, Abdoulaye L. 2012. The grammar of Shupamem. New York: New York University dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
Ndi, Francis W. 2011. Limbum reflexives. http://www.silcam.org/download.php?sstid=030401&folder=documents&file=LimbumReflexivesFNdiWepngong.pdf (accessed 17 August 2017).Search in Google Scholar
Prémare, Alfred-Louis de. 1995. Dictionnaire arabe-français: tome 5. Paris: L’Harmattan.Search in Google Scholar
Raz, Shlomo. 1983. Tigre grammar and texts. Malibu: Undena.Search in Google Scholar
Schladt, Mathias. 2000. The typology and grammaticalization of reflexives. In Zygmunt Frajzyngier & Traci S. Curl (eds.), Reflexives: Forms and functions, 103–124. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.10.1075/tsl.40.05schSearch in Google Scholar
Schuh, Russell G. 1998. A grammar of Miya. Berkeley/Los Angeles/London: University of California Press.Search in Google Scholar
Seyoum, Mulugeta. 2008. A grammar of Dime. Leiden: Universiteit Leiden dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
Smeets, Henricus J. 1984. Studies in West Circassian phonology and morphology. Leiden: The Hakuchi Press.Search in Google Scholar
Taine-Cheikh, Catherine. 2007. Voix moyenne et variations d‘actance: le réfléchi en arabe et en berbère (exemples de Mauritanie). In André Rousseau, Didier Bottineau & Daniel Roulland (eds.), L’énoncé réfléchi, 321–342. Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes.Search in Google Scholar
Vogt, Hans. 1963. Dictionnaire de la langue Oubykh. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.Search in Google Scholar
Yakpo, Kofi. 2009. A grammar of Pichi. Berlin/Accra: Isimu Media.Search in Google Scholar
Yeou, Mohamed. 2016. Metaphor and metonymy in body parts in some Amazigh varieties: the case of the ʽheadʼ and its parts. Asinag, Revue de l’IRCAM 11, 1–21.Search in Google Scholar
Zwart, Jan-Wouter. 2006. Baker's generalization in a derivational theory of binding. http://www.let.rug.nl/zwart/docs/bindingproc.pdf (accessed 02 September 2017).Search in Google Scholar
References
Albizu, Pablo. 1997. Generalized person-case constraint: A case for syntax-driven inflectional morphology. Anuario del Seminario de Filología Vasca “Julio de Urquijo” 40. 1–33.Search in Google Scholar
Amiridze, Nino. 2006. Reflexivization strategies in Georgian. Utrecht: Landelijke Onderzoekschool Taalwetenschap.Search in Google Scholar
Amiridze, Nino & Torsten Leuschner. 2002. Body-part nouns as a source of reflexives: Towards a grammaticalization account of Georgian tav- “head”. Sprachtypologie- und Universalienforschung 55. 259–276.10.1524/stuf.2002.55.3.259Search in Google Scholar
Applegate, Joseph R. 1955. Shilha: A descriptive grammar with vocabulary and texts. Pennsylvania: University of Pennsylvania dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
Aronson, Howard I. 1982. On the status of version as a grammatical category in Georgian. Folia Slavica 5. 66–80.Search in Google Scholar
Bentolila, Fernand. 1981. Grammaire fonctionnelle d’un parler berbère: Aït Seghrouchen d’Oum Jeniba (Maroc). Paris: Société d’études linguistiques et anthropologiques de France.Search in Google Scholar
Benveniste, Émile. 1966. Actif et moyen dans le verbe. In Émile Benveniste (ed.), Problèmes de linguistique générale, volume 1, 168–175. Paris: Éditions Gallimard.Search in Google Scholar
Biarnay, Samuel. 1908. Étude sur le dialecte berbère de Ouargla. Paris: Ernest Leroux.Search in Google Scholar
Boeder, Winfried. 2003. Anapher im Swanischen. In Winfried Boeder (ed.), Kaukasische Sprachprobleme, 75–94. Oldenburg: Universität Oldenburg.Search in Google Scholar
Boeder, Winfried. 2005. The South Caucasian languages. Lingua 115. 5–89.10.1016/j.lingua.2003.06.002Search in Google Scholar
Bybee, Joan, Revere Perkins & William Pagliuca. 1994. The evolution of grammar: Tense, aspect, and modality in the languages of the world. Chicago/London: University of Chicago Press.Search in Google Scholar
Campbell, Lyle. 2001. What’s wrong with grammaticalization? Language Sciences 23. 113–161.10.1016/S0388-0001(00)00019-XSearch in Google Scholar
Cxak’aia, Ivan. 1890. Nʒalieriši umosi nʒalieri iro ki’i [There is always a stronger to the strong]. In Tipografija kantseljarij Glavnonachal’stvujushchago grazhdanskuju chast’ju na Kavkaze [Типография канцелярий Главноначальствующаго гражданскую частью на Кавказе] (eds.), Sbornik materialov dlja opisanija mestnostej i plemen Kavkaza, vol. 10. Tbilisi: Tip. Imp. Velič. na Kavkaze. 311–333.Search in Google Scholar
Dallet, Jean-Marie. 1982. Dictionnaire Kabyle-français: Parler des At Mangellat Algerie. Paris: Société d’études linguistiques et anthropologiques de France.Search in Google Scholar
Dayley, Jon P. 1981. Tzutujil grammar. Berkeley: University of California dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
de Rijk, Rudolf. 2008. Standard Basque: A progressive grammar, volume 1: The grammar. Cambridge/London: MIT Press.10.7551/mitpress/7444.001.0001Search in Google Scholar
Dmitriev, Nikolaj, K. 1948. Grammatika bashkirskogo jazyka. Moskva: Rossijskaja Akademija Nauk.Search in Google Scholar
El Mountassir, Abdallah. 1999. Initiation au Tachelhit. Paris: L’Asiathèque.Search in Google Scholar
Elouazizi, Noureddine. 2000. Notes on the clausal structure of Guezenaya Tarifyt Berber. Vancouver: Simon Fraser University.Search in Google Scholar
Euskara Institutua. 2013. Euskal Klasikoen Corpusa [Corpus of Basque classics]. Donostia-San Sebastián: University of the Basque Country. http://www.ehu.eus/ehg/kc/ (accessed 06 July 2018).Search in Google Scholar
Everaert, Martin. 1986. The syntax of reflexivization. Dordrecht/Riverton: Foris.10.1515/9783110250510Search in Google Scholar
Fähnrich, Heinz. 1991. Old Georgian. In Alice C Harris (ed.), The indigenous languages of the Caucasus, volume 1: The Kartvelian languages, 129–217. Delmar/New York: Caravan.Search in Google Scholar
Fähnrich, Heinz. 2007. Kartwelisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Leiden/Boston: Brill.10.1163/ej.9789004161092.i-874Search in Google Scholar
Faltz, Leonard M. 1977. Reflexivization: A study in universal syntax. Los Angeles: University of California dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
Fischer, Wolfdietrich. 1972. Grammatik des klassischen Arabisch. Wiesbaden: Harassowitz.Search in Google Scholar
Gaguadze, Tamar. 2012. Sit’q’vebze meored da gulc’rpelad [Again and sincerely about words]. Cxeli Šok’oladi 85. 10.Search in Google Scholar
Geeraerts, Dirk. 1985. Cognitive restrictions on the structure of semantic change. In Jacek Fisiak (ed.), Historical semantics - historical word formation, 127–154. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.Search in Google Scholar
Genušienė, Emma. 1987. The typology of reflexives. New York: Mouton de Gruyter.10.1515/9783110859119Search in Google Scholar
Grigore, George. 2007. L’árabe parlé à Mardin: Monographie d’un parler arabe «périphérique». Bucarest: Editura Universităţii din Bucareşti.Search in Google Scholar
Hammarström, Harald, Robert Forkel & Martin Haspelmath. 2017. Glottolog 3.0. Jena: Max Planck Institute. http://glottolog.org/ (accessed 16 October 2017).Search in Google Scholar
Hanoteau, Adolphe. 1896. Essai de grammaire de la langue Tamachek’, renfermant les principes du langage parlé par les Imouchar’ ou Touareg. Algiers: Jourdan.Search in Google Scholar
Harrell, Richard S. 1962. A short reference grammar of Moroccan Arabic. Washington D.C: Georgetown University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Harris, Alice C. 1981. Georgian syntax: A study in relational grammar. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Harris, Alice C. 1985. Diachronic syntax: The Kartvelian case. New York: Academic Press.10.1163/9789004373143Search in Google Scholar
Haspelmath, Martin. 1990. The grammaticization of passive morphology. Studies in Language 14(1). 25–72.10.1075/sl.14.1.03hasSearch in Google Scholar
Haspelmath, Martin. 2008. A frequentist explanation of some universals of reflexive marking. Linguistic Discovery 6(1). 40–63.10.1349/PS1.1537-0852.A.331Search in Google Scholar
Heath, Jeffrey. 2005. A grammar of Tamashek (Tuareg of Mali). Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.10.1515/9783110909586Search in Google Scholar
Heine, Bernd. 1997. Cognitive foundations of grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Heine, Bernd. 1999. Polysemy involving reflexive and reciprocal markers in African languages. In Zygmunt Frajzyngier & Tracy Curl (eds.), Reciprocals: Forms and functions, 1–29. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.10.1075/tsl.41.02heiSearch in Google Scholar
Heine, Bernd. 2005. On reflexive forms in creoles. Lingua 115. 201–257.10.1016/j.lingua.2003.10.003Search in Google Scholar
Heine, Bernd. 2011. Areas of grammaticalization and geographical typology. In Osamu Heida, Christa König & Hiros Nakagawa (eds.), Geographical typology and linguistic areas: With special reference to Africa, 41–66. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.10.1075/tufs.2.06heiSearch in Google Scholar
Heine, Bernd, Ulrike Claudi & Hünnemeyer Friederike. 1991. Grammaticalization: A conceptual framework. Chicago/London: Chicago University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Heine, Bernd & Tania Kuteva. 2002. World lexicon of grammaticalization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511613463Search in Google Scholar
Heine, Bernd & Tania Kuteva. 2005. Language contact and grammatical change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9780511614132Search in Google Scholar
Hewitt, George. 1995. Georgian: A structural reference grammar. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.10.1075/loall.2Search in Google Scholar
Holisky, Dee Ann & Rusudan Gagua. 1994. Tsova-Tush (Batsbi). In Rieks Smeets (ed.), The indigenous languages of the Caucasus, volume 4: The North East Caucasian languages, part 2: Presenting the three Nakh languages and six minor Lezgian languages, 147–212. Delmar: Caravan.Search in Google Scholar
Hopper, Paul J & Elizabeth C Traugott. 2003. Grammaticalization. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9781139165525Search in Google Scholar
Hualde, José I & Jon Ortiz de Urbina. 2003. A grammar of Basque. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.10.1515/9783110895285Search in Google Scholar
Huang, James, Li Audrey & Li Yafei. 2009. The syntax of Chinese. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.10.1017/CBO9781139166935Search in Google Scholar
Ibarretxe-Antuñano, Iraide. 2002. The conceptual structure of Basque buru “head”. Fontes Linguae Vasconum 91. 463–492.Search in Google Scholar
Kazenin, Konstantin I. 2001. Verbal reflexives and the middle voice. In Martin Haspelmath, Ekkehard König, Wulf Oesterreicher & Wolfgang Raible (eds.), Language typology and language universals: An international handbook, volume 2, 916–927. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.10.1515/9783110194265-005Search in Google Scholar
Kemmer, Suzanne. 1993. The middle voice. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.10.1075/tsl.23Search in Google Scholar
Klimov, Georgij A & Mixail E Alekseev. 2010. Tipologija kavkazskix jazykov. Moskva: Nauka.Search in Google Scholar
Klimov, Georgij A & Madzhid S Khalilov. 2003. Slovar’ kavkazskix jazykov. Moskva: Vostochnaja Literatura.Search in Google Scholar
König, Ekkehard. 2001. Intensifiers and reflexive pronouns. In Martin Haspelmath, Ekkehard König, Wulf Oesterreicher & Wolfgang Raible (eds.), Language typology and language universals: An international handbook, volume 1, 747–759. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter.10.1515/9783110171549.2Search in Google Scholar
König, Ekkehard. 2007. Vers une nouvelle typologie des marques réfléchies. In André Rousseau, Didier Bottineau & Daniel Roulland (eds.), L’énoncé réfléchi, 107–130. Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes.Search in Google Scholar
König, Ekkehard & Peter Siemund. 2000. Intensifiers and reflexives: A typological perspective. In Zygmunt Frajzyngier & Traci S Curl (eds.), Reflexives: Forms and functions, 41–74. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.10.1075/tsl.40.03konSearch in Google Scholar
König, Ekkehard & Peter Siemund. 2005. Intensifiers and reflexive pronouns. In Martin Haspelmath, Matthew Dryer, David Gil & Bernard Comrie (eds.), The world atlas of language structures, 194–197. Oxford: Oxford University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Kossmann, Maarten G. 2000. Esquisse grammaticale du rifain oriental. Paris/Leuven: Peeters.Search in Google Scholar
Kossmann, Maarten G. 2012. Berber. In Zygmunt Frajzyngier & Erin Shay (eds.), The Afroasiatic languages, 18–101. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Search in Google Scholar
Kossmann, Maarten G. 2013a. The Arabic influence on Northern Berber. Leiden: Brill.10.1163/9789004253094Search in Google Scholar
Kossmann, Maarten G. 2013b. A grammatical sketch of Ghadames Berber (Libya). Köln: Köppe.Search in Google Scholar
Krueger, John R. 1961. Chuvash manual: Introduction, grammar, reader, and vocabulary. Bloomington: Indiana University publications.Search in Google Scholar
Lacroix, René. 2009. Description du dialecte laze d’Arhavi (caucasique du sud, Turquie): grammaire et textes. Lyon: Université Lumière Lyon 2 dissertation. http://theses.univ-lyon2.fr/documents/lyon2/2009/lacroix_r#p=0&a=topSearch in Google Scholar
Lacroix, René. 2012. Laz middle voice. In Gilles Authier & Katharina Haude (eds.), Ergativity, valency and voice, 165–198. Berlin/Boston: Walter de Gruyter.10.1515/9783110227734.165Search in Google Scholar
Lafitte, Pierre. 1962. Grammaire basque ‒ navarro-labourdin littéraire. Donostia/Baiona: Elkarlanean.Search in Google Scholar
Lagodeli,, K’axi. 1974. Gorga [Gorga]. Cisk’ari 10. 66.Search in Google Scholar
Lehmann, Christian. 2002. Thoughts on grammaticalization. Erfurt: Universität Erfurt.Search in Google Scholar
Ljutikova, Jekaterina A. 2002. Kognitivnaja tipologija: Refleksivy i intensifikatory. Moskva: Rossijskaja Akademija Nauk.Search in Google Scholar
Mart’irosovi, Aram. 1964. Nacvalsaxeli kartvelur enebši [The pronoun in Kartvelian languages]. Tbilisi: Sakartvelos SSR mecnierebata akademiis gamomcemloba.Search in Google Scholar
Michaelis, Susanne M., Philippe Maurer, Martin Haspelmath & Magnus Huber. 2013. Atlas of Pidgin and Creole language structures online. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute. https://wals.info.Search in Google Scholar
Mitxelena, Koldo. 1987. Diccionario general vasco/Orotariko euskal hiztegia. Bilbo-Bilbao: Euskaltzaindia.Search in Google Scholar
Moravcsik, Edith. 1972. Some cross-linguistic generalizations about intensifier constructions. Chicago Linguistic Society 8. 271–277.Search in Google Scholar
Newmeyer, Frederick J. 2001. Deconstructing grammaticalization. Language Sciences 23. 187–229.10.7551/mitpress/4115.003.0006Search in Google Scholar
Nicolas, Francis. 1953. La langue berbère de Mauritanie. Dakar: Institut Fondamental d’Afrique Noire.Search in Google Scholar
Orel, Vladimir E & Olga V Stolbova. 1995. Hamito-Semitic etymological dictionary. Materials for a reconstruction. Brill: Leiden/New York/Köln.10.1163/9789004293953Search in Google Scholar
Prémare, Alfred-Louis de. 1995. Dictionnaire arabe-français: Tome 5. Paris: L’Harmattan.Search in Google Scholar
Reinhart, Tanya & Eric Reuland. 2002. Reflexivity. Linguistic Inquiry 24. 657–720.Search in Google Scholar
Rijkhoff, Jan & Dik Bakker. 1998. Language sampling. Linguistic Typology 2. 263–314.10.1515/lity.1998.2.3.263Search in Google Scholar
Safir, Ken. 2012. Anaphora in the African languages: Questionnaire for language consultants. http://www.africananaphora.rutgers.edu/images/stories/downloads/general/aq2.3.pdf (accessed 19 August 2017). New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers.Search in Google Scholar
Šanidze, Ak’ak’i. 1982. Altgeorgisches Elementarbuch, part 1: Grammatik der altgeorgischen Sprache, Translated from Georgian by Heinz Fähnrich. Tbilisi: Buske.Search in Google Scholar
Sarasola, Ibon. 1979. Nire/neure, zure/zeure literatur tradizioan [Nire/neure, zure/zeure in literary tradition]. Euskera 25(2). 431–446.Search in Google Scholar
Sarrionandia, Pedro. 1925. Gramática de la lengua rifeña. Tangier, Morocco: Tipografía hispano-arábiga de la Misión Católica.Search in Google Scholar
Schladt, Mathias. 2000. The typology and grammaticalization of reflexives. In Zygmunt Frajzyngier & Traci S Curl (eds.), Reflexives: Forms and functions, 103–124. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.10.1075/tsl.40.05schSearch in Google Scholar
Serhoual, Mohammed. 2002. Dictionnaire tarifit-français. Tetouan: Université Abdelmalek Essaâdi dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
Simons, Gary F & Charles D Fennig (eds.), 2018. Ethnologue: Languages of the world. Dallas: SIL International. https://www.ethnologue.com/ (accessed 18 April 2018).Search in Google Scholar
Stumme, Hans. 1899. Handbuch des Schilhischen von Tazerwalt. Leipzig: Hinrichs’sche Buchhandlung.Search in Google Scholar
Taïfi, Miloud. 1991. Dictionnaire tamazight-français (parlers du Maroc central). Paris: L‘Harmattan-Awal.Search in Google Scholar
Taine-Cheikh, Catherine. 2005a. Moyen et réfléchi: Typologie comparée de l‘arabe et du berbère (exemples mauritaniens). Materiaux arabes et sudarabiques 11. 37–52.Search in Google Scholar
Taine-Cheikh, Catherine. 2005b. Le problème des verbes dérivés en berbère et l‘example du zénaga. In Pelio Fronzaroli & Paolo Marrassini (eds.), Proceedings of the 10th meeting of Hamito-Semitic (Afroasiatic) linguistics, 391–409. Firenze: Università di Firenze.Search in Google Scholar
Taine-Cheikh, Catherine. 2007. Voix moyenne et variations d‘actance: Le réfléchi en arabe et en berbère (exemples de Mauritanie). In André Rousseau, Didier Bottineau & Daniel Roulland (eds.), L’énoncé réfléchi, 321–342. Rennes: Presses Universitaires de Rennes.Search in Google Scholar
Trask, Robert L. 1997. The history of Basque. London: Routledge.Search in Google Scholar
Tuite, Kevin. 1997. Svan. München: Lincom.Search in Google Scholar
van den Boogert, Nico. 1997. The Berber literary tradition of the Sous: With an edition and translation of ‘The Ocean of Tears’ by Muḥammad Awzal (d. 1749). Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten.Search in Google Scholar
van Putten, Marijn. 2013. A grammar of Awjila Berber (Libya). Based on Umberto Paradisi’s material. Leiden: Universiteit Leiden dissertation.Search in Google Scholar
van Putten, Marijn. 2016. The origin of front vowel nominal prefixes in Berber. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 166(1). 11–39.10.13173/zeitdeutmorggese.166.1.0011Search in Google Scholar
Vogt, Hans. 1988. Remarques sur le pronom possessif du vieux géorgien. In Hans Vogt (ed.), Linguistique caucasienne et arménienne, 506–512. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget.Search in Google Scholar
Yeou, Mohamed. 2016. Metaphor and metonymy in body parts in some Amazigh varieties: The case of the ʽheadʼ and its parts. Asinag, Revue de l’IRCAM 11. 1–21.Search in Google Scholar
© 2018 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
