Summary
Whereas many aspects of the Augustan age continue to enjoy ongoing or renewed interest, the early careers of Tiberius Claudius Nero (born 16 November 42 BCE) and Nero Claudius Drusus (March/April 38 BCE), Livia’s sons from her marriage to Ti. Claudius Nero (pr. 42), have not been subject to much discussion or controversy of late. On the one hand, this could, perhaps, be explained in that they were quite young during the formative stages of the so-called Augustan monarchy, the critical settlements being those of 27, 23 and 19 BCE, the eye-catchers par excellence in the political history of the early Augustan era. On the other hand, Livia’s sons only really emerge into the spotlight of both ancient sources and modern scholarship after the untimely passing of M. Vipsanius Agrippa in 12 BCE. This paper aims at revisiting the evidence for Tiberius’ and Drusus’ careers in the decade or so before the latter’s premature death in Germany in 9 BCE, the period preceding the rapid rise (and demise) of Gaius and Lucius Caesar. There are, indeed, strong indications that Livia’s sons played a far more important part than has hitherto been recognized, both in terms of their official position and their role in assisting Augustus with one of his most important political objectives, namely the imperial monopolization of the public triumph.
For Fergus Millar
Acknowledgments
An abridged version of this study was presented as work in progress in the form of a conference paper at the University of Sydney in September 2014 (“Augustus from a Distance”) and subsequently also as a seminar paper at Newcastle University in June 2017 and a public lecture at Princeton University in April 2018, during a marvelous stint as Member of the Institute for Advanced Study’s School of Historical Studies. The encouraging response and valuable feedback received on these occasions from a number of distinguished scholars and keen graduate students proved very useful in shaping and refining the argument. I alone, however, am to be held responsible for any views here espoused as well as any remaining flaws and errors. I would also like to express my profound and enduring gratitude to KLIO’s Editorial Board for their splendid generosity in providing space for articles of considerable substance, a prized privilege in an increasingly commercialized and competitive scholarly publishing environment. Since I would not be where I am today without the humbling friendship and tireless support of the late Fergus Millar, whom I had the pleasure of meeting in Berkeley in 2003 and then again in Oxford in 2006, this study is dedicated to his memory.
List of Illustrations
Images 2–5 are sourced from the Numismatische Bilddatenbank Eichstätt (in the order in which they appear here: BMCRE: Augustus 449, 445, 448, 443) whilst Image 1 derives from the Bristish Museum (BrM. 1841,0726.1087).
Bibliography
Alföldy 1974: G. Alföldy, Noricum (The Provinces of the Roman Empire 3), London 1974.Search in Google Scholar
Alföldy 1992: G. Alföldy, Studi sull’epigrafia augustea e tiberiana di Roma, Rome 1992.Search in Google Scholar
Baar 1990: M. Baar, Das Bild des Kaisers Tiberius bei Tacitus, Sueton und Cassius Dio, Stuttgart 1990.10.1515/9783110948004Search in Google Scholar
Badian 1974: E. Badian, The Quaestorship of Tiberius Nero, Mnemosyne 27, 1974, 160–172.10.1163/156852574X00863Search in Google Scholar
Barnes 1974: T. D. Barnes, The Victories of Augustus, JRS 64, 1974, 21–26.10.2307/299257Search in Google Scholar
Béranger 1953: J. Béranger, Recherches sur l’aspect idéologique du principat, Basel 1953.Search in Google Scholar
Béranger 1980: J. Béranger, L’imperium proconsulaire et la puissance tribunicienne dans l’Histoire Auguste, in: J. Straub (ed.), Bonner Historia Augusta-Colloquium 1977/78 (Antiquitas 4, Beiträge zur Historia-Augusta-Forschung 1.14), Bonn 1980, 1–15.Search in Google Scholar
Bernecker 1989: A. Bernecker, Die Feldzüge des Tiberius und die Darstellung der unterworfenen Gebiete in der “Geographie des Ptolemaeus”, Bonn 1989.Search in Google Scholar
Bersanetti 1947: G. M. Bersanetti, Tiberiana, Athenaeum 25, 1947, 3–16.10.2307/3022566Search in Google Scholar
Bleicken 1998: J. Bleicken, Augustus. Eine Biographie, Berlin 1998.Search in Google Scholar
Boyce 1942: A. A. Boyce, The Origin of ornamenta triumphalia, CPh 37, 1942, 130–141.10.1086/362593Search in Google Scholar
Brandt 1995: H. Brandt, Marcellus “successioni praeparatus”? Augustus, Marcellus und die Jahre 29–23 v. Chr., Chiron 25, 1995, 1–17.Search in Google Scholar
Bringmann 1977: K. Bringmann, Imperium proconsulare und Mitregentschaft im frühen Prinzipat, Chiron 7, 1977, 219–238.Search in Google Scholar
Brunt 1990: P. A. Brunt, Roman Imperial Themes, Oxford 1990.Search in Google Scholar
Campbell 1993: J. B. Campbell, War and Diplomacy. Rome and Parthia, 31 BC–AD 235, in: J. Rich – G. Shipley (eds.), War and Society in the Roman World, London 1993, 213–240.10.4324/9781003071341-10Search in Google Scholar
Castritius 1982: H. Castritius, Der römische Prinzipat als Republik, Husum 1982.Search in Google Scholar
Combès 1966: R. Combès, Imperator. Recherches sur l’emploi et la signification du titre d’imperator dans la Rome républicaine, Paris 1966.Search in Google Scholar
Cooley 2009: A. Cooley (ed.), Res Gestae Divi Augusti. Text, Translation and Commentary, Cambridge 2009.Search in Google Scholar
Coudry 2016: M. Coudry, Cassius Dio on Pompey’s Extraordinary Commands, in: C. H. Lange – J. M. Madsen (eds.), Cassius Dio. Greek Intellectual and Roman Politician, Leiden – Boston 2016, 33–50.10.1163/9789004335318_004Search in Google Scholar
Cowan 2009a: E. Cowan, Tiberius and Augustus in Tiberian Sources, Historia 58, 2009, 468–485.Search in Google Scholar
Cowan 2009b: E. Cowan, Tacitus, Tiberius and Augustus, ClAnt 28, 2009, 179–210.10.1525/CA.2009.28.2.179Search in Google Scholar
Crook 1996: J. A. Crook, Political History, 30 B.C. to A.D. 14, in: CAH2 X, The Augustan Empire 43 B.C.–A.D. 69, 1996, 70–112.10.1017/CHOL9780521264303.003Search in Google Scholar
Dalla Rosa 2014: A. Dalla Rosa, Cura et tutela. Le origini del potere imperiale sulle province proconsulari, Stuttgart 2014.Search in Google Scholar
Dalla Rosa 2015: A. Dalla Rosa, P. Silius Nerva (proconsul d’Illyrie en 16 av. J.-C.) vainqueur des Trumplini, Camunni et Vennonetes sous les auspices d’Auguste, REA 117, 2015, 463–484.Search in Google Scholar
Dart – Vervaet 2011: C. J. Dart – F. J. Vervaet, The Significance of the Naval Triumph in Roman History (260–29 BCE), ZPE 176, 2011, 267–280.Search in Google Scholar
De Caprariis 1993: F. De Caprariis, Un monumento dinastico tiberiano nel Campo Marzio settentrionale, BCAR 95, 1993, 93–114.Search in Google Scholar
Dettenhofer 2000: M. H. Dettenhofer, Herrschaft und Widerstand im augusteischen Principat. Die Konkurrenz zwischen res publica und domus Augusta, Stuttgart 2000.Search in Google Scholar
Drogula 2015: F. K. Drogula, Who Was Watching Whom? A Reassessment of the Conflict between Germanicus and Piso, AJPh 136, 2015, 121–153.10.1353/ajp.2015.0005Search in Google Scholar
Dupraz 1963: L. Dupraz, Autour de l’association de Tibère au principat, MH 20, 1963, 172–185.Search in Google Scholar
Eck 1984: W. Eck, Senatorial Self-Representation. Developments in the Augustan Period, in: F.G.B. Millar – E. Segall (eds.), Caesar Augustus. Seven Aspects, Oxford 1984, 129–167.Search in Google Scholar
Eck 1998: W. Eck, Augustus und seine Zeit, München 1998.Search in Google Scholar
Eck 2003: W. Eck, s.v. C. Piso, Cn. – C. Piso Pontifex, L., in: DNP II, 2003, 1000–1001.Search in Google Scholar
Eck 2018a: W. Eck, Augustus – Tiberius – Varus. Eine römische Erfolgsgeschichte in Germanien und ihr Scheitern, Geschichte in Köln. Zeitschrift für Stadt- und Regionalgeschichte 65, 2018, 7–30.10.7788/gik.2018.65.1.7Search in Google Scholar
Eck 2018b: W. Eck, Consilium coercendi intra terminos imperii. Motivationswandel in der augusteischen Expansionspolitik?, in: S. Segeni (ed.), Augusto dopo il bimillenario, Milan 2018, 128–137.Search in Google Scholar
Erkelenz 2002: D. Erkelenz, Das Porträt des Statthalters in der Lokalprägung der römischen Provinzen. Überlegungen zu Funktion und Verbreitung des Phänomens in Republik und Kaiserzeit, SNR 81, 2002, 65–91.Search in Google Scholar
Fitz 1993: J. Fitz, Die Verwaltung Pannoniens in der Römerzeit I, Budapest 1993.Search in Google Scholar
Gallotta 1987: B. Gallotta, Germanico, Rome 1987.Search in Google Scholar
Gelzer 1918: M. Gelzer, s.v. Tiberius Iulius Caesar Augustus, in: RE X.1, 1918, 478–536.Search in Google Scholar
Goodyear 1972: F.R.D. Goodyear (ed.), The Annals of Tacitus, I: Annals 1.1–54, Cambridge 1972.Search in Google Scholar
Grant 1946: M. Grant, From Imperium to Auctoritas. A Historical Study of Aes Coinage in the Roman Empire 49 B.C.–A.D. 14, Cambridge 1946.Search in Google Scholar
Gruen 1996: E. S. Gruen, The Expansion of the Empire under Augustus, in: CAH2 X, The Augustan Empire 43 B.C.–A.D. 69, 1996, 147–197.10.1017/CHOL9780521264303.005Search in Google Scholar
Halfmann 1986: H. Halfmann, Itinera principum. Geschichte und Typologie der Kaiserreisen im römischen Reich, Stuttgart 1986.Search in Google Scholar
Hanslik 1961: R. Hanslik, s.v. M. Vipsanius Agrippa, in: RE IX A.1, 1961, 1226–1275.Search in Google Scholar
Havener 2016: W. Havener, Imperator Augustus. Die diskursive Konstituierung der militärischen persona des ersten römischen princeps, Stuttgart 2016.Search in Google Scholar
Hellegouarc’h 1982: J. Hellegouarc’h (ed.), Velleius Paterculus, Histoire romaine II, Paris 1982.Search in Google Scholar
Hickson 1991: F. V. Hickson, Augustus Triumphator. Manipulation of the Triumphal Theme in the Political Program of Augustus, Latomus 50, 1991, 124–138.Search in Google Scholar
Hurlet 1997: F. Hurlet, Les collègues du prince sous Auguste et Tibère. De la légalité républicaine à la légitimité dynastique, Rome 1997.Search in Google Scholar
Hurlet 2006: F. Hurlet, Le proconsul et le prince d’Auguste à Dioclétien, Bordeaux 2006.10.4000/books.ausonius.3459Search in Google Scholar
Hurlet 2015: F. Hurlet, La suprématie auspiciale du prince en question(s). Une nouvelle hiérarchie des auspices, CCG 26, 2015, 289–305.Search in Google Scholar
Itgenshorst 2005: T. Itgenshorst, Tota illa pompa. Der Triumph in der römischen Republik, Göttingen 2005.10.13109/9783666252600Search in Google Scholar
Itgenshorst 2008: T. Itgenshorst, Der Princeps triumphiert nicht. Vom Verschwinden des Siegesrituals in augusteischer Zeit, in: H. Krasser – D. Pausch – I. Petrovic (eds.), Triplici invectus triumph. Der römische Triumph in augusteischer Zeit, Stuttgart 2008, 27–53.Search in Google Scholar
Itgenshorst 2017: T. Itgenshorst, Die Transformation des Triumphes in augusteischer Zeit, in: F. Goldbeck – J. Wienand (eds.), Der römische Triumph in Prinzipat und Spatäntike, Berlin – Boston 2017, 59–81.10.1515/9783110448009-005Search in Google Scholar
Jacques – Scheid 1990: F. Jacques – J. Scheid, Rome et l’intégration de l’Empire (44 av. J.-C.–260 ap. J.-C.), I: Les structures de l’empire romain, Paris 1990.Search in Google Scholar
Jones 1934: H. S. Jones, The Princeps, in: CAH X, 1934, 127–158.Search in Google Scholar
Kehne 2002: P. Kehne, Limitierte Offensive. Drusus, Tiberius und die Germanienpolitik im Dienste des augusteischen Prinzipats, in: J. Spielvogel (ed.), Res publica reperta. Zur Verfassung und Gesellschaft der römischen Republik und des Frühen Prinzipats, Festschrift für Jochen Bleicken zum 75. Geburtstag, Stuttgart 2002, 297–321.Search in Google Scholar
Kienast 1990: D. Kienast, Römische Kaisertabelle. Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie, Darmstadt 1990.Search in Google Scholar
Kienast – Eck – Heil 2017: D. Kienast – W. Eck – M. Heil, Römische Kaisertabelle. Grundzüge einer römischen Kaiserchronologie, Revised Sixth Edition, Darmstadt 2017.Search in Google Scholar
Koestermann 1963: E. Koestermann (ed.), Cornelius Tacitus. Annalen, I: Buch 1–3, Heidelberg 1963.Search in Google Scholar
Koestermann 1967: E. Koestermann (ed.), Cornelius Tacitus. Annalen, III: Buch 11–13, Heidelberg 1967.Search in Google Scholar
Krämer 1973: K. Krämer, Zur Rückgabe der Feldzeichen im Jahre 20 v. Chr., Historia 22, 1973, 362–363.Search in Google Scholar
Kuttner 1995: A. L. Kuttner, Dynasty and Empire in the Age of Augustus. The Case of the Boscoreale Cups, Berkeley – Los Angeles – Oxford 1995.Search in Google Scholar
Lange 2016: C. H. Lange, Triumphs in the Age of Civil War. The Late Republic and the Adaptability of Triumphal Tradition, London – New York 2016.Search in Google Scholar
Lebek 1991: W. D. Lebek, Der Proconsulat des Germanicus und die Auctoritas des Senats, Tab. Siar. Frg. I 22–24, ZPE 87, 1991, 103–124.Search in Google Scholar
Levick 1966: B. M. Levick, Drusus Caesar and the Adoptions of A.D. 4, Latomus 25, 1966, 227–244.Search in Google Scholar
Levick 1972a: B. M. Levick, Atrox Fortuna, CR 22, 1972, 309–311.10.1017/S0009840X0099663XSearch in Google Scholar
Levick 1972b: B. M. Levick, Tiberius’ Retirement to Rhodes in 6 B.C., Latomus 31, 1972, 779–813.Search in Google Scholar
Levick 1976: B. M. Levick, Tiberius the Politician, London 1976.10.4324/9780203279571Search in Google Scholar
Levick 1999: B. M. Levick, Tiberius the Politician, Revised Second Edition, London – New York 1999.Search in Google Scholar
Levick 2010: B. M. Levick, Augustus. Image and Substance, Harlow 2010.10.4324/9781315835297Search in Google Scholar
Magie 1908: D. Magie, The Mission of Agrippa to the Orient in 23 B.C., CPh 3, 1908, 145–152.10.1086/359151Search in Google Scholar
Maxfield 1981: V.A. Maxfield, The Military Decorations of the Roman Army, London 1981.Search in Google Scholar
Mommsen 1878: Th. Mommsen, Römisches Staatsrecht I–III, Leipzig 18783.Search in Google Scholar
Mommsen 1883: Th. Mommsen, Res Gestae Divi Augusti ex Monumentis Ancyrano et Apolloniensi, Berlin 18832.Search in Google Scholar
Morgan 2019: D. Morgan, The Generalship of P. Quinctilius Varus in the Clades Variana, Antichton 53, 2019, 87–107.10.1017/ann.2019.7Search in Google Scholar
Mountford 2019: P. Mountford, Maecenas, London – New York 2019.10.4324/9780429028441Search in Google Scholar
MRR = T.R.S. Broughton, The Magistrates of the Roman Republic, II: 99 B.C.–31 B.C., Cleveland 1952.Search in Google Scholar
Münzer 1897: F. Münzer, s.v. Tiberius Claudius Nero [Claudius no. 254], in: RE III.1, 1897, 2777–2778.Search in Google Scholar
Paladini 1969: M. L. Paladini, I poteri di Tiberio Cesare dal 4 a 14 d.C., in: J. Bibauw (ed.), Hommages à M. Renard, Brussels 1969, 573–599.Search in Google Scholar
Pettinger 2012: A. Pettinger, The Republic in Danger. Drusus Libo and the Succession of Tiberius, Cambridge 2012.10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199601745.001.0001Search in Google Scholar
Pina Polo 2011: F. Pina Polo, The Consul at Rome. The Civil Functions of the Consuls in the Roman Republic, Cambridge 2011.10.1017/CBO9780511921377Search in Google Scholar
Powell 2011: L. Powell, Eager for Glory. The Untold Story of Drusus the Elder, Conqueror of Germania, Barnsley 2011.Search in Google Scholar
Radice – Mayer 2016: K. Radice – R. Mayer (ed.), Tacitus. Annals, I: A Selection, London – New York 2016.Search in Google Scholar
Reinhold 1933: M. Reinhold, Marcus Agrippa. A Biography, New York 1933.10.2307/294867Search in Google Scholar
Rich 1990: J. W. Rich, Cassius Dio. The Augustan Settlement (Roman History 53–55.9), Warminster 1990.10.2307/j.ctv10tq4w9Search in Google Scholar
Rich 1998: J. W. Rich, Augustus’s Parthian Honours, the Temple of Mars Ultor and the Arch in the Forum Romanum, PBSR 66, 1998, 71–128.10.1017/S0068246200004244Search in Google Scholar
Rich 2012: J. W. Rich, Making the Emergency Permanent. Auctoritas, Potestas and the Evolution of the Principate of Augustus, in: Y. Rivière (ed.), Des réformes augustéennes, Rome 2012, 37–121.Search in Google Scholar
Rich – Williams 1999: J. Rich – J.H.C. Williams, Leges et Iura P. R. Restituit. A New Aureus of Octavian and the Settlement of 28–27 BC, NC 159, 1999, 169–213.Search in Google Scholar
Ridley 2003: R. T. Ridley, The Emperor’s Retrospect. Augustus’ Res Gestae in Epigraphy, Historiography and Commentary, Leuven – Dudley 2003.Search in Google Scholar
Ritter 1978: H. W. Ritter, Überlegungen zur Inschrift des Augustusbogens auf dem Forum Romanum, MDAI (R) 85, 1978, 371–384.Search in Google Scholar
Rohde 1942: G. Rohde, s.v. Ovatio, in: RE XVIII.2, 1942, 1890–1903.Search in Google Scholar
Roddaz 1984: J.-M. Roddaz, Marcus Agrippa, Rome 1984.10.3406/befar.1984.1220Search in Google Scholar
Rose 1997: C. B. Rose, Dynastic Commemoration and Imperial Portraiture in the Julio-Claudian Period, Cambridge – Melbourne 1997.Search in Google Scholar
SCPP = W. Eck – A. Caballos – F. Fernández, Das senatus consultum de Cn. Pisone patre, München 1996.Search in Google Scholar
Schön 1986: F. Schön, Der Beginn der römischen Herrschaft in Rätien, Sigmaringen 1986.Search in Google Scholar
Seager 1972: R. J. Seager, Tiberius, London 1972.10.1525/9780520347304Search in Google Scholar
Seager 1977: R. J. Seager, The Return of the Standards in 20 BC, LCM 2, 1977, 201–202.Search in Google Scholar
Seager 2005: R. J. Seager, Tiberius, Second Edition, Malden 2005.10.1002/9780470773871Search in Google Scholar
Sherwin-White 1984: A. N. Sherwin-White, Roman Foreign Policy in the East 168 B.C. to A.D. 1, London 1984.Search in Google Scholar
Siber 1940: H. Siber, Das Führeramt des Augustus, Leipzig 1940.Search in Google Scholar
Simpson 1988: C. J. Simpson, The Change in Praenomen of Drusus Germanicus, Phoenix 42, 1988, 173–175.10.2307/1088232Search in Google Scholar
Stein 1899: A. Stein, s.v. Nero Claudus Drusus, in: RE III.2, 1899, 2703–2719.Search in Google Scholar
Stylow 1977: A. U. Stylow, Noch einmal zu der Tiberius-Inschrift von Saepinum, Chiron 7, 1977, 487–491.Search in Google Scholar
Sumi (forthcoming): G. Sumi, Nero and Britannicus in the Pompa Circensis. The Circus Procession as Dynastic Ceremony in the Court of Claudius, forthcoming.Search in Google Scholar
Syme 1939: R. Syme, The Roman Revolution, Oxford 1939.Search in Google Scholar
Syme 1958: R. Syme (ed.), Tacitus I–II, Oxford 1958.Search in Google Scholar
Syme 1978: R. Syme, History in Ovid, Oxford 1978.Search in Google Scholar
Syme 1979: R. Syme, Some Imperatorial Salutations, Phoenix 33, 1979, 308–329.10.2307/1087188Search in Google Scholar
Syme 1986: R. Syme, The Augustan Aristocracy, Oxford 1986.Search in Google Scholar
Taylor 1937: L. R. Taylor, Tiberius’ Ovatio and the Ara Numinis Augusti, AJPh 58, 1937, 185–193.10.2307/290210Search in Google Scholar
Thomasson 1991: B. E. Thomasson, Legatus. Beiträge zur römischen Verwaltungsgeschichte, Stockholm 1991.Search in Google Scholar
Timpe 1962: D. Timpe, Untersuchungen zur Kontinuität des frühen Prinzipats, Wiesbaden 1962.Search in Google Scholar
Timpe 1967: D. Timpe, Drusus’ Umkehr an der Elbe, RhM 110, 1967, 289–306.10.1515/9783110932676.171Search in Google Scholar
Timpe 1975: D. Timpe, Zur augusteischen Partherpolitik zwischen 30 und 20 v. Chr., WJA 1, 1975, 155–169.Search in Google Scholar
van Berchem 1968: D. van Berchem, La conquête de la Rhétie, MH 25, 1968, 1–10.Search in Google Scholar
Vervaet 2006: F. J. Vervaet, The Official Position of Cn. Pompeius in 49 and 48 BCE, Latomus 65, 2006, 928–953.Search in Google Scholar
Vervaet 2010a: F. J. Vervaet, Arrogating Despotic Power through Deceit. The Pompeian Model for Augustan dissimulatio, in: A. J. Turner – J.H.K.O. Chong-Gossard – F. J. Vervaet (eds.), Private and Public Lies. The Discourse of Despotism and Deceit in the Graeco-Roman World, Leiden – Boston 2010, 133–166.Search in Google Scholar
Vervaet 2010b: F. J. Vervaet, The Secret History. The Official Position of Imperator Caesar Divi filius from 31 to 27 BCE, AncSoc 40, 2010, 79–152.Search in Google Scholar
Vervaet 2011: F. J. Vervaet, Reducing Senatorial Control over Provincial Commanders. A Forgotten Gabinian Law of 67 BCE, in: O. Hekster – T. Kaizer (eds.), Frontiers in the Roman World. Proceedings of the Ninth Workshop of the International Network Impact of Empire (Durham, 16–19 April 2009), Leiden – Boston 2011, 265–290.10.1163/ej.9789004201194.i-378.57Search in Google Scholar
Vervaet 2012: F. J. Vervaet, The Praetorian Proconsuls of the Roman Republic (211–52 BCE). A Constitutional Survey, Chiron 42, 2012, 45–96.Search in Google Scholar
Vervaet 2014: F. J. Vervaet, The High Command in the Roman Republic. The Principle of the summum imperium auspiciumque from 509 to 19 BCE, Stuttgart 2014.Search in Google Scholar
Vrind 1923: G. Vrind, De Cassii Dionis vocabulis quae ad ius publicum pertinent, Den Haag 1923.Search in Google Scholar
Wallace-Hadrill 1990: A. Wallace-Hadrill, Roman Arches and Greek Honours. The Language of Power at Rome, PCPhS 36, 1990, 143–181.10.1017/S0068673500005265Search in Google Scholar
Weingärtner 1969: D. G. Weingärtner, Die Ägyptenreise des Germanicus, Bonn 1969.Search in Google Scholar
Wells 1972: C. M. Wells, The German Policy of Augustus. An Examination of the Archaeological Evidence, Oxford 1972.Search in Google Scholar
Wells 2003: P. S. Wells, The Battle that Stopped Rome. Emperor Augustus, Arminius, and the Slaughter of the Legions in the Teutoburg Forest, New York – London 2003.Search in Google Scholar
Wolters 2017: R. Wolters, Die Schlacht im Teutoburger Wald. Arminius, Varus und das römische Germanien, München 2017.10.17104/9783406699962Search in Google Scholar
Woodman 1977: A. J. Woodman, Velleius Paterculus. The Tiberian Narrativ, Cambridge 1977.Search in Google Scholar
Zanker 1987: P. Zanker, Augustus und die Macht der Bilder, München 1987.Search in Google Scholar
© 2020 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston
