Abstract
This paper addresses issues in the theory of field-induced electron emission. First, it summarises our present understanding of the theory of Fowler-Nordheim (FN) plots, and shows the relationship between a recent precise (in standard FN theory) approach to the interpretation of the FN-plot intercept and older approximate approaches. Second, it comments on the interpretation of FN plots taken from semiconductor field emitters. Third, it summarises the main points of a recent hypothesis about the mechanism of field-induced emission from carbonbased films and other electrically nanostructured heterogeneous (ENH) materials. Weaknesses in previous hypotheses are noted. It is hypothesised that thin films of all ENH materials, when deposited on a conducting substrate, will emit electrons in appropriate circumstances. Such films emit electrons at low macroscopic fields because they contain conducting nanostructure inside them: this structure generates sufficient geometrical field enhancement near the film/vacuum interface that more-or-less normal Fowler-Nordheim emission can occur. In connection with experiments on amorphous carbon films carried out by a group in Fribourg, it is shown that nanostructure of the size measured by scanning probe techniques should be able to generate field enhancement of the size measured in field electron spectroscopy experiments. This result provides a quantitative corroboration of other work suggesting that emission from amorphous carbon films is primarily due to geometrical field enhancement by nanostructures inside the film. Some counter-arguments to the internal-field-enhancement hypothesis are considered and disposed of. Some advantages of ENH materials as broad-area field emission electron sources are noted; these include control of material design.
Similar content being viewed by others
Reference
R. G. Forbes, Solid State Electronics (submitted for publication).
R. H. Fowler and L. W. Nordheim, Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A119, 173 (1928).
E. L. Murphy and R. H. Good, Phys. Rev. 102, 1464 (1956).
R. G. Forbes, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B17, 526 (1999).
F. M. Charbonnier and E. E. Martin, J. Appl. Phys. 33, 1897 (1962).
L. N. Dobretsov and M. V. Gomoyunova, Emission Electronics (Izdatel’stvo “Nauka”, Moscow, 1966) (trans. by: Israel Programme for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem, 1971).
C. A. Spindt, I. Brodie, L. Humphrey and E. R. Westerberg, J. Appl. Phys. 47, 6248 (1976).
In the defintion in Ref. [4], a minus sign has been omitted: u needs to be positive.
R. F. Burgess, H. Kroemer and J. M. Houston, Phys. Rev. 90, 515 (1953).
R. G. Forbes, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B17, 534 (1999).
A. Modinos, Field, Thermionic, and Secondary Electron Emission Spectroscopy (Plenum, New York, 1984).
R. Stratton, Phys. Rev. 125, 67 (1962).
L. S. Pan, Mat. Res. Soc. Symp. Proc. 436, 407 (1996).
M. Shah, Physics World 10 (6), 39 (1997).
B. R. Chalamala and B. E. Gnade, IEE Spectrum (April 1998) 42.
V. V. Zhirnov and J. J. Hren, MRS Bulletin (September 1998) 42.
S. R. P. Silva, J. Robertson, W. I. Milne and G. A. J. Amaratunga (eds.), Amorphous Carbon: State of the the Art (World Scientific, Singapore, 1998).
M. W. Geiss, N. N. Efremow, J. D. Woodhouse, M. D. McAleese, M. Marchywka, D. G. Socker and J. F. Hochedez, IEEE Electron Dev. Lett. 12, 456 (1991).
C. Wang, A. Garcia, D. C. Ingram, M. Lake and M. E. Kordesch, Electronics Lett. 27, 1459 (1991).
J. Robertson, J. Vac. Sci. Technol. B17, 659 (1999).
J. Robertson, Carbon 37, 759 (1999).
C. Herring and M. H. Nichols, Rev. Mod. Phys. 7, 95 (1935).
L. K. Hansen, J. Appl. Phys. 37, 4498 (1966).
J. B. Cui, J. Ristein and L. Ley, Phys. Rev. B 60, 16135 (1999).
S. R. P. Silva, private communication.
G. A. J. Amaratunga and S. R. P. Silva, Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2529 (1996).
M. W. Geiss, J. C. Twichell, N. N. Efremow, K. Krohn and T. M. Lyszczarz, Appl. Phys. Lett. 68, 2294 (1996).
O. M. Küttel, O. Gröning, L. Nilsson, L. Diederich and L. Schlapbach, Electron Field Emission from Carbon Films, in Ref. [17].
O. Gröning, O. M. Küttel, P. Gröning and L. Schlapbach, J. Vac. Sci. Tech. B17, 1 (1999).
O. Gröning, O. M. Küttel, P. Gröning and L. Schlapbach, Appl. Phys. Lett. 71, 2253 (1997).
R. D. Young and H. E. Clark, Phys. Rev. Lett. 17, 351 (1966).
T. V. Vorburger, D. Penn and E. W. Plummer, Surface Sci. 48, 417 (1975).
R. G. Forbes, 1st European Field Emission Workshop, Toledo, November 1999 (unpublished abstracts).
G. A. J. Amaratunga, M. Baxendale, N. Rupesinghe, I. Alexandrou, M. Chhowalla, T. Butler, A. Munindradasa, C. J. Kiley, L. Zhang and T. Sakai., New Diamond and Frontier Carbon Tech. 9, 31 (1999).
A. Ilie, A. C. Ferrari, T. Yagi and J. Robertson, Diamond 99, Prague, September 1999 (unpublished abstracts).
J. Robertson, these proceedings.
S. Bajic, M. S. Mousa and R. V. Latham, Colloque de Physique 50 (C8), 79 (1989).
R. A. Tuck, W. Taylor, P. G. A. Jones and R. V. Latham, Proc. 4th International Devices Workshop, Nagoya, 1997, p. 723.
M. K. Miller, A. Cerezo, M. G. Heatherington and G. D. W. Smith, Atom Probe Field Ion Microscopy (Clarendon, Oxford, 1996).
S. Bajic and R. V. Latham, J. Phys. D: Appl. Phys. 21, 200 (1988).
E. Braun, R. G. Forbes, R. V. Latham, J. M. Pelmore and D. E. Sykes, 22nd International.Field Emission Symp., Atlanta, August 1975 (unpublished abstracts, p. 33).
R. G. Forbes, Technical Digest, 9th International Vacuum Microelectronics Conference (ISBN 5-86072-081-5) (Bonch-Rruevich Univ. of Telecommunications, St Petersburg, 1996) p. 58.
M. S. Mousa, Appl. Surf. Sci. 94/95, 129 (1996).
A. Modinos, Surface Sci. 42, 205 (1974).
R. D. Forrest, A. P. Burden, S. R. P. Silva, L. K. Cheah and X. Shi, Appl. Phys. Lett. 73, 3784 (1998).
GöA. hl, GüB. nther, T. Habermann, MüG. ller, M. Schreck, ThüK. H. rer and B. Stritzker, J. Vac. Sci. Technol B 18, 1031 (2000).
I. Brodie and C. A. Spindt, Adv. Electr. Electron Phys. 83, 1 (1992).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Forbes, R.G. Theory and Modelling of Field-Induced Electron Emission. MRS Online Proceedings Library 621, 311 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1557/PROC-621-R3.1.1
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1557/PROC-621-R3.1.1