In this article, I am concerned with the dynamics of self among North Koreans, in conjunction with their predicament of being under constant surveillance. To the outside world, the public behavior of North Koreans counts as one of the most puzzling aspects of the reclusive state, while many observers of North Korea point to a “real face” or “pure heart” behind the theatrical “public face” among North Koreans. Based on ethnographic interviews with visitors to North Korea and North Korean refugees, I explore the interweaving relations between the opposing modes of North Koreans’ self-presentation: a theatrical “public face” and a non-theatrical “pure heart.” I argue that however contrasting they seem, the two modes of self-presentation are in support of, rather than in opposition to, each other for the purposes of the state. Exploiting the cultural notions of public and private and mind-heart, the North Korean state strives to make the face and the heart one and the same in piousness and loyalty. Yet the dramaturgical outlook of North Koreans begs a serious question as to the success of ideological indoctrination when an effort is made to co-opt the mind-heart of a people in the service of state sanctity.
Recently North Koreans, publicly mourning the death of their leader, Kim Jong Il, drew international media attention. As they had done upon the death of Kim Il Sung in 1994, the people, this time again, abundantly and openly showed signs of deep grief and profound respect. Many outsiders were perplexed by these scenes. Were they “acts” demonstrating a correct political attitude? Or did they illustrate the success of political indoctrination? I myself have long been occupied with the dramaturgical outlook of the North Korean state and its people. North Koreans extravagantly proclaim their love for their leader
While media images repeatedly convey an excess of the political in the lives of North Koreans, Andrei Lankov, a long-time observer of North Korea, commented that “[m]ost people’s lives [in North Korea] remain nearly untouched by high politics”
I take these observations of North Koreans’ affective behaviors as a starting point. I examine how each of the two modes of self-presentation is manifest in social encounters, but the focal point of my inquiry lies in the nature of the apparent bifurcation in self-presentation among North Koreans. A common interpretation by outside observers is that North Koreans keep up their public face for political performance, but their private self may reveal otherwise; whereas one’s public face is a mask, one’s private self can be the locus of sincerity or a pure heart
The North Korean state propaganda is that North Korea represents the “real” or “authentic” Korea vis-à-vis South Korea, and a popular belief among South Koreans is likewise that North Korea has remained “more traditional” or “quintessentially Korean” in terms of the cultural ideal of affective relationality, having a “purer” heart. My argument is that the very “Korean-ness” of North Korean society and its people is a consequence of the creative appropriation and exploitation of certain cultural conceptions by the modern nation-state, rather than a legacy of pre-modern or traditional Korea. By examining the interlocking of public order, communal sociability, and private self, I demonstrate how some focal psychocultural elements are drawn into the state apparatus, resulting in the uniform image of North Koreans expressing reverence for their leader.
Yet I am not claiming that North Koreans do not have “private selves.” Individual North Koreans testify to a broader and more realistic picture of their life world and mind-heart. Their views and accounts, though inferred and delivered through third parties, invite us to seriously consider the value they place on inner autonomy equally in the name of pure heart, amid the extraordinary performative demand of public face. I show that the cultural conceptions of the public and mind-heart have crucially underpinned the political crusade by the North Korean state, yet the very cultural conceptions nevertheless allow stances and behaviors that do disservice to the state effort. In order to access their life world as alluded to by North Koreans themselves, I pay particular attention to the complexities of mind-heart in relation to the public and private distinction. My aim through this study is to step into the underexplored terrain of the interrelationship among state propaganda work, its psychocultural underpinnings, and life world of the people in North Korea.
2 I use the term “mind-heart” to refer to the psychic reality as well as self-agency in line with the Korean folk termmaŭm that has meanings for both mind and heart in English usage.
3 SeeLankov and Kwak (2011) for the surveillance institution called “neighborhood group (inminban )” that operates in the communal social space.