초록
The study of Pyŏn Kangsoe-ka (hereafter PKSK) reached its peak in the 1980s and 1990s. However, several important topics in PKSK still remain provocative and unexplored. This study attempts to bring new approaches to the debates regarding how to interpret the identity of the main character Kangsoe and what the actual theme (as opposed to the surface theme, namely, lewdness) of the work is in order to clarify a number of contradictions in the PKSK not explained in extant research. Contrary to the presupposition that there should be a single consistent theme in PKSK, one can identify more than one possible theme and hear multiple voices in the work. Any work of fiction, as Bakhtin argues, represents a “multiplicity of styles” and exemplifies the idea of the “nonexistence of a one-voiced novel.” This essay argues that there was an intentional and systematic revision of PKSK by Sin Chae-hyo, who thoroughly compiled the work. Kangsoe can be seen as an alter ego of Sin Chae-hyo in that they share exceptionally high levels of self-aggrandizement, resulting mainly from the discontent that their talents were not properly appreciated. As a frustrated scholar, Sin’s escape from reality was accomplished through his devotion to p’ansori, just as Kangsoe’s only escape is his devotion to carnal desire. Kangsoe is used to betray Sin Chae-hyo’s resentment toward an absurd social system, his disdain for the petty moralism of yangban, and his unrestrained pursuit of aesthetic value in erotica. Teptŭgi and Kangsoe, as the two polemic reflections of Sin Chae-hyo’s inner conflict, betray the realism and idealism of Sin, respectively. Eventually, Sin makes the realistic version of his alter ego annihilate the idealistic version.
키워드
identity of Pyŏn Kangsoe, surface theme and actual theme, alter ego, nonexistence of a one-voiced novel, manipulation of the emphasis on lewdness
INTRODUCTION2
NOTABLE TOPICS DISCUSSED IN PKSK STUDIES
In
In terms of story plot,
Scholars generally agree that
Scholars also differ in their opinions on which main figures generate the central conflicts in the story—whether they are Kangsoe and Ongnyŏ, Kangsoe and the
Scholars have shown distinct or even opposing interpretations of these significant topics in understanding
3 Cho, “The General Nature of
4 Pihl,
5 With regard to Sin Chae-hyo’s contribution to the development of
6 Pihl, 65–66.
7 Many scholars also agree that there was more than one prototype story for
KANGSOE AND ONGNYŎ: IDENTITIES
Sŏ Chong-mun asserts that Kangsoe and Ongnyŏ should be understood as itinerant homeless people (
Kim Chong-ch’ŏl, however, questions the couple’s identity as itinerant homeless people, asserting that they were originally urban idlers, especially in the case of Kangsoe.
Kim’s evasive conclusion is due to his belief that there
I suggest that to understand Kangsoe’s identity better, we should observe how Kangsoe describes himself in the text before attempting to consider the social, historical, and political background of
8 This interpretation by Sŏ Chong-mun can be seen in his various essays on
9 A number of scholars accept Sŏ’s interpretation (sometimes with their own modifications) or at least refer to him when discussing the protagonists’ identities in
10 See Kim Chong-ch’ŏl, “
11 See, for example, the scene where Kangsoe challenges the
12 See Kim Chong-ch’ŏl, “
13 Ibid., 51 and passim.
14 Ibid., 80.
15 Ibid., 70–80.
16 It is rather surprising that some scholars, after pointing out that
KANGSOE AS A TRAGIC HERO: KANGSOE DESCRIBED BY HIMSELF
Scholars generally agree that Kangsoe is portrayed as a person with a distorted temper. As the narrator says, Kangsoe is “a profligate like no other under Heaven” (
However, Kangsoe’s evaluation of himself is strikingly different from that of the narrator; Kangsoe thinks of himself as a heroic figure who has missed his time. In other words, it is not Kangsoe who is to blame for his deeds, but the wrong society and wrong time in which he finds himself. When asked to cut firewood, he laments, “Alas! What nonsense! People say that when a Tatar horse breaks its waist it is employed to carry manure, and that when a courtesan is ruined she is forced to sell cheap wine in a tacky tavern. Never thought it would ever happen to me. How can one make a romantic guy like me gather firewood?”
Kangsoe not only excels in military arts (
Here we observe a huge gap between the narrator’s view of Kangsoe and Kangsoe’s own self-description. Given the fact that
More importantly, it can be verified that Sin Chae-hyo remains the sole compiler/rewriter who is known to have made critical revisions to the extant version of the narrative text of
While it is obvious that
The most basic element shared by Kangsoe and Sin Chae-hyo is that both are discontent with the social situations and conditions surrounding them. Sin Chaehyo, restricted by his social standing as the son of a minor local official (
Sin’s escape from reality was accomplished through his devotion to
17 Kang Chin-ok, “
18 Ibid., 432. All translations are mine. I translated
19 Ibid., 434.
20 Ibid., 436.
21 See Chŏn, “
22
23 See Ibid., 428. Kim Chong-ch’ŏl and Pak Kwan-su point out that these comparisons portend Kangsoe’s tragic death, since these kings are figures who ruined themselves by indulging in excessive sensual pleasure. See Kim, “
24 For a more detailed discussion of Sin Chae-hyo’s revision of
25 Cho Dong-il notes, “[
26 Pihl notes, “Of the six songs represented in Shin Chae-hyo’s [Sin Chae-hyo’s] collection, only the “Song of Pyŏn Kangsoe” exists solely as a
27 As for the available libretti versions of
28
29 Most scholars agree that all six
30 See Kang Han-yŏng,
31 Sŏ Chong-mun observes that although Sin obtained the nominal title of a government official by donating money, he was not able to act as a
32 See, for example,
33 See Sŏ, “Sin Chae-hyo ŭi segye insik,” 163.
34 A similar example of the main character in a novel serving as the author’s alter ego can be found in
35 See Sŏ, “Sin Chae-hyo ŭi segye insik,” 177; and Kim Sŏk-pae, 349.
36 Sŏ, “Sin Chae-hyo ŭi segye insik,” 167.
37
THE CONFLICT BETWEEN KANGSOE AND THE CHANGSŬNG
Whether Kangsoe and Ongnyŏ are itinerant homeless people or urban idlers, it is obvious that they are rejected by society. Their decision to live in seclusion is due to the fact that they cannot live harmoniously with ordinary, settled people.
Their distinct natures are also betrayed in their names. The name
Sino-Korean
In this context, it is quite natural for Kangsoe to challenge the
However, Chŏng Pyŏng-hŏn asserts that the
Kangsoe’s audacious challenge to authority is repaid with even harsher revenge. The scene of Kangsoe’s wrongful death and his curse is the section that has produced the most numerous debates (and misinterpretations) to date. Some think Kangsoe joins the male authority represented by the
Accordingly, Kangsoe wants to remain the only partner in Ongnyŏ’s romantic affairs. For Kangsoe, any men who approach Ongnyŏ after his death are representative of the authority trying to take away Kangsoe’s ultimate pride, whether they really belong to that authority or not.
38 See
39 Refer to
40 See John DeFrancis,
41
42 It can be argued that there may have been different prototype names for Kangsoe. This does not affect the conclusion here, though, since my interpretation of the name
43 Surprisingly, no one has thus far paid attention to the meaning of the protagonists’ names in
44 Chŏn summarizes the discussions on the conflict between Kangsoe and the
45
46 Chŏng Pyŏng-hŏn, 371–74.
47 For example, see Chŏng Pyŏng-hŏn, 371.
48 Kim Chong-ch’ŏl, “
49 Pak Kwan-su, 286.
50 Kangsoe shows his firm enmity toward his potential competitors in terms of romantic affairs when he decides to leave the city, saying, “I would rather starve for ten years than see those scamps trying to seduce my woman.” See
51 As Kim Chong-ch’ŏl points out, according to the traditional concept of spirits, Kangsoe’s grudge should be relieved by proper prayer or sacrificial ceremonies (cf. footnote 48). However, Kangsoe’s unyielding resentment after his death reveals that his grudge is not something private but is a protest against social contradiction as a whole.
CONCLUSION: TEPTŬGI AS ANOTHER ALTER EGO OF SIN CHAE-HYO
Kangsoe’s death is a turning point in
We have already observed that the ego and temper of Kangsoe resemble those of Sin Chae-hyo. Scholars also note that it is Sin Chae-hyo who bolstered and developed the lewdness and licentiousness in
Sin’s sense of polarity between the ideal and the real is clearly betrayed in his way of thinking. Lamenting that he did not meet with the right time and with better luck, Sin must have been aware that his status as a famous
Concerning this traditional, didactic conclusion to works of erotic fiction, Patrick Hanan notes, “The libertine’s adulterous adventures may enthrall the reader with their glimpse of forbidden pleasure, but
Teptŭgi is the character employed by Sin for this purpose. In other words, if we can compare Kangsoe as the alter ego of Sin in the ideal, Teptŭgi is his other alter ego in the real. It is notable that Teptŭgi is the only character who recognizes Kangsoe as a heroic figure, comparing Kangsoe with other tragic heroes who did not meet their time, such as Jing Ke and Xiang Yu.
We have argued that Teptŭgi and Kangsoe, as the two polemic reflections of Sin Chae-hyo’s inner conflict, betray the realism and idealism of Sin, respectively. However, Sin chooses to return to reality for his conclusion. Sin’s conflict is so bitter that Kangsoe does not withdraw even after his corpse is cut into three pieces. Eventually, Sin makes the realistic version of his alter ego annihilate the idealistic version. The moment Teptŭgi grinds Kangsoe’s corpse into particles is in fact the moment Sin Chae-hyo grinds his ambitions and resentment into pieces, returning to his reality as a wealthy minor local official.
In his “narration of pulverizing” (
52 Pak Chin-t’ae points out that although
53 For the theme of lewdness, see Pak Chin-t’ae’s article mentioned above.
54 See Sŏ, “Sin Chae-hyo ŭi segye insik,” 159–64.
55 Ibid., 165.
56 See Hanan,
57
58
59 The literati’s ceaseless desire to seek a friend who truly recognizes his talent and virtue has been one of the most popular and persistent topics in traditional Chinese and Korean literature. In premodern Chinese and Korean society where Neo-Confucianism functioned as the predominant ideology, many intellectuals believed that having a true
60 See
61
62 Hanan, viii.
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1 I would like to express my gratitude to Dr. Ross King (University of British Columbia), who read an earlier draft of this paper and provided editorial help. I also thank two anonymous reviewers for their meticulous comments, which I found very helpful. Mr. Leif Olsen proofread the text.
2 The Romanization systems used in this paper are McCune-Reischauer for Korean and pinyin for Chinese.