초록
A mokkan is a wooden slip on which characters are inscribed after it has been trimmed. In ancient times, Koreans communicated with others by leaving notes or their thoughts on such mokkan (wooden slips). Contrary to China where slips are divided into zhujian (竹簡, bamboo slips) and mudu (木牘, wooden slips), bamboo slips were very rare in Korea. Unlike Chinese wooden slips (mudu), Korean mokkan are rectangular in shape. The shape of Korean wooden slips is in fact more in keeping with that of Japanese wooden slips. However, while multi-sided wooden slips (mokkan) have been discovered in Korea, none have been unearthed in Japan. This was designed to heighten convenience when studying scriptures or preparing documents. The characteristics of Korean wooden slips can be attributed to the traditional method of communication that existed even before the introduction of Chinese characters and revolved around inscribing etchings and signs on wood. The mokkan culture of ancient Korea was as such a combination of the conventional communication method using pieces of wood and the Chinese character system. Approximately 700 mokkan have been discovered to date. These were used as scriptures, documents, tags, rituals, memos, and for practice purposes. In keeping with this wide range of uses, various types of Korean mokkan were produced. Although the mokkan discovered to date were produced solely within the borders of Lelang Commandery of the Han dynasty, Paekche, and Silla, the possibility of mokkan produced in Koguryŏ, Kaya, and Parhae being discovered in the future cannot be ruled out altogether. Interest in ancient Korean mokkan has increased and a significant number of studies have also accumulated. There are differing opinions regarding the wooden slips (mokkan) found at Sŏngsan Fortress in Haman, and more specifically in terms of the word noin (奴人) recorded on the mokkan and the tax burden of nobi (奴婢). Meanwhile, mokkan discovered in Pogam-ri, Naju, shed some light on the nature of the ruling system of Paekche in local areas during the early seventh century. The human-shaped slip found in the reservoir complex at Hwawang Fortress in Ch’angnyŏng, was used to conduct a ritual ceremony for the dragon king (yongwang). However, different opinions have emerged as to whether the purpose of the ritual ceremony was to pray for rain or to cure diseases. Rather than being compiled by later generations, Korean ancient mokkan are historical materials that were prepared by people who lived during the actual period being depicted. Furthermore, the contents of these mokkan help to shed some light on the state of affairs at the time and the intentions of the composer. A more profound understanding of ancient society in Korea can be secured when more materials are accumulated and classified by type and purposes of use, an endeavor that will be made possible by an increase in the discovery of mokkan, and interdisciplinary studies in related fields are developed and implemented.
키워드
mokkan, wooden slips, ancient Korea, documents, tags, rituals
1. INTRODUCTION
The introduction of modern, empirical study methodologies since the twentieth century has led to great advancements in the study of ancient Korean history. The study of ancient Korean history to this point has helped to shed some light on the geographical locations of the Four Han Commanderies (漢四郡 108 BCE–313 CE) and various ancient polities. Moreover, an understanding of the process through which the local groups that emerged during the Bronze Age developed into ancient kingdoms after going through various forms of confederation has also taken root. A more profound perception of the political and social characteristic of the bone-rank (
The above-mentioned results have been made possible by studies of historical materials in document form such as
The serious lack of materials with which to study ancient Korean history and the many problems with existing materials has been well documented. In this regard,
The release of collections of script materials, including
Pusan Metropolitan City Museum.
Puyŏ National Museum.
Kyŏngju National Museum.
Ch’angwŏn National Cultural Properties Research Institute. (
Puyŏ National Museum and Kaya National Cultural Properties Research Institute.
Son Hwanil et al.,
The emergence of such basic works has led to a rapid increase in the number of studies analyzing administrative documents and the land tax system of ancient Korean society, the ruling system in local areas, as well as the philosophies, religions and rites of the ancient Korean people.
While ancient historical societies in China and Japan have paid attention to the historical value and cultural implications of Korean
This study analyzes the characteristics of Korean
2. THE CONCEPT OF KOREAN MOKKAN
In China, these tablets are called
The term
Many of them agreed and said, “let us make fifty
This traditional narrative recounts the situation of Silla at the end of the ninth century, However, the term 木簡 was also used in China. It is also found in Yan Shigu’s annotations of the
Xi (檄) indicates a slip written on
The wooden slips used for recording purposes were called
Based on their contents and functions,
6
7
8
9 However, the name and concept of Korean
10 The Lelang Commandery was one of the local bodies installed by the Han dynasty of China following the destruction of Kojosŏn or Old Chosŏn located in the northwest of the Korean peninsula from 108 BCE to 313 CE. Strictly speaking, the
3. CURRENT STATE OF MOKKAN EXCAVATION
The actual study on Korean
Figure 1. Major ancient Korean
Table 1. Current state of ancient Korean
Some of the above-mentioned cases can be regarded as representative types and usages of ancient Korean
Buddhist sutra
Scobs are fragments or scraps formed in the process of taking off the surface of a
An index
A
One of the
Photographic evidence of
However, even these partial materials have provided us with some important facts. For instance, while the Chŏngbaek-tong
But the
(In Silla) there are no characters. They communicated by carving markings on wood as a sign of good faith.
The veracity of this record can be called into question. As the Silla Monument in Chungsŏng-ri in P’ohang, on which Chinese characters were engraved, was established prior to 501, it should be regarded that the culture of Chinese characters had already been introduced to Silla society before the fifth century. As such, this record should not be construed to mean that the people of Silla were completely unaware of Chinese characters. Rather, the usage of Chinese characters should be seen as having been less pronounced in Silla than in Koguryŏ and Paekche. At the time, Silla envoys visited the Liang dynasty of China along with Paekche envoys. The Silla envoys could only communicate with Liang through the Paekche envoys. Under such circumstances, there is a possibility that Paekche purposefully misrepresented the culture of Silla to Liang.
Anyhow, according to the above records, Silla was unaware of Chinese characters around 521, and used a piece of wood on which signs were inscribed as a kind of token of trust. Thus, the people of Silla used a piece of wood to deliver information even before they knew Chinese characters.
The
11 This possibility is further heightened by the image of an official named Kisil depicted in a mural painting in No. 3 tomb in Anak of Koguryŏ, in which he is holding a brush and a
12
4. REVIEW OF MOKKAN SLIPS
Having introduced ancient
As Haman was a central region of Ara Kaya, the main tombs of this kingdom, namely the Tohang-ri and Malsan-ri tombs, were located north of Sŏngsan Fortress. However, the fortress itself was built by Silla around 561, or after Ara Kaya had fallen. The
A closer look at the shape of these
So-called
Figure 2.
The entry on the
However, there are some problems with this private slave theory. First,
In my view, the term
I believe the
Assertions have recently been made that the term
Let us take a look at the Paekche
The Pogam-ri area of Naju is regarded as having been one of the central regions of the Mahan confederation. However, from the sixth century onwards, Paekche exercised bureaucratic and military control over the area. The
The site consists of a few remains such as an iron production facility, a ritual involving a sacrificed cow, a dwelling, and a water storage facility. Sixty-five
This is also confirmed by references to the local government system of
Even though
Figure 3.
This slip was damaged and the upper part on which entries related to the head of the household, the younger brother, and his family, were entered has been lost. This section may also have contained records pertaining to other families. As such, this household would appear to have been composed of several families. For instance, the elder brother’s family may have been composed of the elder brother himself, his two wives and four children. In terms of its form and contents,
Figure 4. The front (left) and back (right) of
The fact that the
There are other
As mentioned above, we can surmise that by the early seventh century the Paekche state had established an administration system to rule over local societies, and this even in the remote southwestern area of its territory. The terms and their designations of
The next series of
Figure 5. Infrared photography of
Figure 6. The reservoir facility within Hwawang Fortress where the
As this
This
There have been two prevailing opinions concerning this. The first is that the people’s objective was to pray for rain
However, there are some problems with this line of reasoning. The most serious one is that the female figure was described as a “noble” (
Yehyang was the daughter of a noble in Silla who had been suffering from stomach aches since her birth. Someone said, “There is a medicinal herb in the pond of Mt. Hwawang. If you take a bath and pray for her recovery there, she will be cured.” As he was about to hold the rite, Yehyang disappeared into the clouds. Once the clouds had cleared, she surged from the pond with her disease cured completely and gave birth to a son who bore the character
This story implies that the reservoir was a sacred place where a ritual related to a dragon and disease treatment was held. The woman on the
However, the deciphering of the scripts on the
13 A look at the Kwanggaet’o Stele (erected in 414) and Chungwŏn Koguryŏ Stele (erected in the mid-fifth century) shows that the kings of Paekche and Silla, which were regarded as being subordinate to Koguryŏ, were referred to as
14 The use of
15 According to such assertions,
16 Geography Section of
17 It states that the man, Sadalsasa (巳達巳斯), who lived in the capital city of Paekche, was requisitioned to a rice paddy in a local province
18 The photograph was taken after all the nails were removed for investigation.
19 Taking a look at the
20
5. CHARACTERISTICS OF ANCIENT KOREAN MOKKAN
There is no doubt that the writing system employed in ancient Korean polities came from ancient China. This writing system was introduced via the cultural interactions with Chinese kingdoms during the Old Chosŏn period and the commanderies established by the Han dynasty. However, certain differences exist between ancient Chinese wooden slips and Korean
In terms of the species of trees employed, bamboo was not used generally as a writing material in ancient Korea. It would appear that the opportunity to use bamboo increased after the Koryŏ Dynasty, as evidenced by the Mado and Taean
Yet, these bamboo mokkan do not have any specific differences from the
The
Long scripture
While they are not in the form of window blinds like the shape of the character
Not only the obverse but also the reverse of Korean
Some scholars have advanced the idea that
Moreover, there might have been a hierarchy among the means of official communication. While the top would have been edicts from the king, the next would have been a stele like the Chunsŏng-ri Stele in P’ohang followed by paper documents and
21 Kim Kyŏngho, “Han’guk kodae
22 Watanabe Akihiro, “日本古代の都城木簡と羅州木簡” [Nihon kodai no tojou mokkan to naju mokkan, The capital mokkan of ancient Japan and Naju mokkan],
6. CONCLUSION: RESEARCH PROSPECTS
So far, only 700 ancient Korean
Ancient Koreans wrote or engraved letters, signs, or drawings on
Furthermore, the
However, there are some limits, as well. The amount of text on
What’s more, as most Korean
Lastly, a perspective that embraces all of East Asia is necessary. Despite their common origin, the wooden slips of Korea, Japan, and China have certain differences. In particular, the substantial differences between Chinese and Japanese wooden slips have led some scholars to conclude that these differences can be traced back to the invention of ancient Japanese wooden slip culture. But as the study on Korean
23 Japanese historians pointed out the characteristics of
24 Thirty
참고문헌(46)
-
[참고문헌]
2013
“P’yŏngyang sŏgam-ri 194 ho ch’ult’o chukkan koch’al” [A study of the bamboo slip discovered from Sŏkam-ri Tomb No. 194 in P’yŏngyang]
Mokkan kwa muncha [Journal of Wooden Slips and Characters]10
-
[단행본]
2002
Han’guk kodae sahoe ŭi wanggyŏngin kwa chibangmin [Capital denizens and local residents in ancient Korean society].T’aehaksa
-
[참고문헌]
2007
“Haman sŏngsan sansŏng mokkan ŭi naeyong kwa chunggogi Silla ŭi such’wi ch’egye” [The contents of wooden slips discovered in Sŏngsan Fortress of Haman and the tax collection system of Silla during the medieval period]
Yŏksa wa hyŏnsil [History and Reality]65
-
[참고문헌]
2012
“Materials and Trends in the Study of Ancient Korean Wooden Slips.”
The Review of Korean Studies 15(1)
-
[단행본]
2004
Han’guk ŭi kodae [Ancient Korean Mokkan]mokkan -
[단행본]
2007
“金海出土『論語』木簡について” [Kimhae shutto 『Rongo』mokkan nitsuite, The
mokkan of theAnalects of Confucius excavated in Kimhae]. 韓國出土木簡の世界 [Kankoku shutsuto mokkan no sekai, The world of wooden slips discovered in Korea]Yuzankaku
-
[단행본]
1972
“新羅の村落 - 正倉院にある新羅村落文書の硏究” [Shiragi no sonraku – Shosoin ni aru shiragi sonraku bunsho no kenkyu, Silla Village- A study of the documents related to a Silla village in Chŏngch’angwŏn]. 朝鮮中世社會史の硏究 [
Chosen chusei shakai no kenkyu , Study of the medieval era in Chosŏn]Hosei University Press
-
[참고문헌]
2000
“Ilbon kodae
mokkan yŏn’gu ŭi hyŏnsang kwa sinsijŏm” [The current state of the study of ancient Japanese wooden slips and new aspects]韓國古代史硏究 [Journal of Ancient Korean Historical Studies]
19
-
[기타]
2007
“Comment.”
the academic conference to celebrate the joint research between Kaya National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage and Waseda University Center for Korean Culture
-
[참고문헌]
2010
“Taean Mado sujung ch’ult’o mokkan p’andok kwa naeyong” [Interpretation of the
mokkan discovered in the waters off Mado Island in T’aean and the contents thereof]Mokkan kwa muncha [Journal of Wooden Slips and Characters]5
-
[참고문헌]
2009
“Ch’angnyŏng Hwawang sansŏng yongji ch’ult’o
mokkan kwa cheŭi” [The wooden slips from the pond at Hwawang Fortress in Ch’angnyŏng and ritual ceremonies]Mokkan kwa muncha [Journal of Wooden Slips and Characters]4
-
[참고문헌]
2009
“Silla chunggogiŭi noin kwa nobi – Sŏngsan sansŏng
mokkan kwa ‘pongp’yŏngbi’ ŭi punsŏk ŭl chungsim ŭro” [The noin and nobi during the medieval times of Silla—with a special focus on the analysis of themokkan slips of Sŏngsan Fortress and the Pongp’yŏng Silla Stele]Han’guk kodaesa yŏn’gu [Journal of Ancient Korean Historical Studies]54
-
[참고문헌]
2010
“Ch’angnyŏng hwawang sansong yŏnji ch’ult’o
mokkan ŭi naeyong kwa yongdo” [The contents and use of themokkan slips excavated in the pond at Hwawang Fortress in Ch’angnyŏng]Mokkan kwa muncha [Journal of Wooden Slips and Characters]5
-
[참고문헌]
2011
“7 segi ch’o Yŏngsan kang yuyŏk ŭi hogu wa nongjak – Naju pogam-ri mokkan ŭi punsŏk” [Households and agriculture in the Yŏngsan River Basin during the early seventh century—Analysis of the
mokkan slips from Pogam-ri, Naju]Paekche hakpo [Jounal of Paekche Studies]6
-
[단행본]
2010
“Naju Pogam-ri yujŏk mokkan ŭi ch’ult’o maengnak kwa yujŏk ŭi haesŏk” [The context of the excavation of the wooden slips among the Pogam-ri Relics of Naju and interpretation of such relics].
6-7 segi Yŏngsan kang yuyŏk kwa Paekche [The Yŏngsan River Basin and Paekche]Naju Cultural Properties Research Institute
-
[참고문헌]
2009
“Han’guk kodae mokkan e poinŭn myŏt kaji hyŏngt’ae chŏk t’ŭkching – Chungguk kodae mokkan kwa ŭi pigyo rŭl chungsim ŭro” [The physical characteristics of ancient Korean
mokkan —with a special focus on comparisons with ancient Chinesemudu ]Sarim 33
-
[단행본]
2009
Ch’angnyŏng Hwawang sansŏng nae yŏnji [The pond in Hwawang Fortress in Ch’angnyŏng]Kyŏngnam Institute of Cultural Properties
-
[참고문헌]
2010
“Naju Pogam-ri mokkan ŭi p’andok kwa sŏktok” [The deciphering interpretation of the wooden slips from Pogam-ri, Naju]
Mokkan kwa muncha [Journal of Wooden Slips and Characters]5
-
[참고문헌]
2003
“Paekche idu e kwanhayŏ” [Paekche’s idu system]
Kugyŏl yŏn’gu [Study of mnemonic rhyme]11
-
[참고문헌]
1979
“創刊の辭” [Soukan noji, On the publication of the First Issue]
木簡硏究 [Mokkan kenkyu, Journal of Mokukan Studies]
1
-
[참고문헌]
2008
“Haman Sŏngsan sansŏng mokkan sok ŭi koyu myŏngsa p’yogi e taehayŏ” [The method of writing proper nouns on the
mokkan slips from Sŏngsan Fortress in Haman]Sŏngdae sarim 31
-
[단행본]
2003
古代簡牘 [
Gudai jiandu , Ancient bamboo and wooden slips]Cultural Relics Press
-
[단행본]
2013
日本古代の文字と地方社會 [
Nihon kodai no monji to chiho shakai , Ancient Japanese scripts and ancient society]Yoshikawa Kobunkan
-
[보고서]
Naju pogamni yujŏk I – 1–3 ch’a palgul chosa pogosŏ [Naju Pogam-ri Relics I: Report on the 1–3 rounds of excavations]2010
-
[참고문헌]
2000
“Haman Sŏngsan sansŏng palgul chosa wa mokkan” [Excavation of the Sŏngsan Fortress in Haman and
mokkan slips]Han’guk kodaesa yŏn’gu [Journal of Ancient Korean Historical Studies]19
-
[참고문헌]
2006
“Han’guk kodae ŭi noin kwa pugok” [
Noin andpugok of ancient Korea]Han’guk kodaesa yŏn’gu [Journal of Ancient Korean Historical Studies]43
-
[참고문헌]
2009
“Ch’angnyŏng Hwawang sansŏng yŏnji ch’ult’o mokkan” [The wooden slips discovered at the pond in Hwawang Fortress in Ch’angnyŏng]
Mokkan kwa muncha [Journal of Wooden Slips and Characters]4
-
[단행본]
2008
Paekche mokkan [Wooden slips of Paekche].Hakyŏn munhwasa
-
[단행본]
1993
Chosŏn ŭi kwisin [The spirits of Chosŏn]Tongmunsŏn
-
[단행본]
1988
Paekche chŏngch’isa yŏn’gu [The political history of Paekche]Ilchogak
-
[참고문헌]
2008
“Newly Discovered Chinese-Khotanese Bilingual Tallies.”
Journal of Inner Asian Art and Archaeology 3
-
[단행본]
2007
Han’guk kodaesa yŏn’gu ŭi sae tonghyang [A new trend in the study of ancient Korean history]Sŏgyŏng munhwasa
-
[단행본]
1983
日本古代木簡の硏究 [Nihon kodai mokkan no kenkyu, Study of Ancient Japanese Mokukan]
Hanawa shobo
-
[참고문헌]
1977
“Han’guk ŭi chŏnt’ong sahoe wa pyŏngje” [Korean traditional society and military system]
Han’guk hakpo 6
-
[단행본]
2013
Silla mokkan ŭi segye [The world of Sillamokkan ]Kyŏngin munhwasa
-
[참고문헌]
2004
“Haman Sŏngsan sansŏng ch’ult’o mokkan ŭi p’aesŏk kwa pu” [The
p’aesŏk andpu found in themokkan slips of Sŏngsan Fortress in Haman]Chiyŏk kwa yŏksa [Local Area and History]15
-
[단행본]
2002
“古代朝鮮の文字文化” [Kodai chosen no monji bunka, The writing culture of ancient Korea]. 古代日本 文字のある風景 [
Kodai nihon monji no aru hukei , A landscape with ancient Japanese letters]Asahi Shimbun
-
[단행본]
2009
“新羅の識字敎育と論語” [Shiragi no shikiji kyoiku to rongo, Silla’s literal education and the
Analects of Confucius]. 漢字三千年 [Kanji Sansennen , Three thousand years of Chinese characters]Shibunkaku
-
[단행본]
2010
“韓國古代社會における羅州伏岩里木簡の位置” [Kankoku kodai shakai niokeru naju pogam-ri mokkan no ichi, The status of Pogam-ri
mokkan slips in ancient Korean society].6-7 segi Yŏngsan kang yuyŏk kwa Paekche [The Yŏngsan River Basin and Paekche]Naju Cultural Properties Research Institute
-
[참고문헌]
2009
“P’yŏngyang Chŏngbaek-tong 364 hobun ch’ult’o chukka
Nonŏ e taehayŏ” [Analects of Confucius bamboo slips excavated from Chŏngbaek-dong Tomb No. 364 in P’yŏngyang]Mokkan kwa muncha [Journal of Wooden Slips and Characters]4
-
[참고문헌]
2012
“Mokkan esŏ ch’ajŭn Silla siga isu” [Silla poems found on mokkan slips]
Kugyŏl hakhoe nonmun moŭmjip [Collection of essays presented to the Kugyŏl Hakhoe]43
-
[보고서]
“Puyŏ Kungnamji ch’ult’o mokkan ŭi yŏndae wa sŏnggyŏk” [The production period and characteristics of the wooden slips discovered at Kungnam Pond in Puyŏ]
1999
Kungnamji [Report on the excavation at Kungnam Pond] -
[단행본]
2006
Han’guk mokkan kich’o yŏn’gu [Basic research on Koreanmokkan ]Sinsŏwŏn
-
[참고문헌]
1999
“Haman Sŏngsan sansŏng ch’ult’o Silla mokkan ŭi yongdo” [The uses of the Silla
mokkan excavated at Sŏngsan Fortress in Haman]Chindan hakpo 88
-
[단행본]
2007
Mokkan i tŭllyŏ chunŭn Paekche iyagi [The story of Paekche as viewed throughmokkan slips]Churyusŏng
-
[참고문헌]
2012
“Haman Sŏngsan sansŏng ch’ult’o Silla
hach’al ŭi chaegŏmt’o [Reanalysis of the Silla hach’al discovered at Sŏngsan Fortress in Haman].”Sarim 41
1 For more on major study results and future tasks, please refer to the Society for Korean Ancient History,Han’guk kodaesa yŏn’gu ŭi sae tonghyang [New trends in the study of ancient Korean history] (Seoul: Sŏgyŏng munhwasa, 2007)
2 The Kaya National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage (http://www.cch.go.kr ) provides photos and deciphered characters of ancient Korean mokkan .
3 The main findings in this field will be discussed in the text.
4 Chinese historians have focused on themokkan on which the Analects of Confucius were written discovered at the site of the Lelang Commandery, in Kimhae and in Inch’ŏn. Meanwhile, Japanese scholars have paid attention to the process whereby the culture of Chinese characters was accepted in Japan via the Korean peninsula and the relationship between ancient Korean and Japanese wooden slips. They have also conducted comparative studies of the two countries.
5 Chŏn Tŏkchae, “Materials and Trends in the Study of Ancient Korean Wooden Slips,”The Review of Korean Studies Vol. 15 No. 1 (2012).