초록
The three sculptures excavated from P’an’gyo in 2008 are rare examples dating from the early Koryŏ period. This article examines the period of manufacture of the gilt-bronze Buddha and bodhisattva excavated from Area C of Zone 10 in P’an’gyo. The icon-ography of the two statues with hands held together in prayer is not clear. It is possible that they are images of Kṣitigarbha, Sengqie, or Arhat, but none display any one typical iconography. From the excavation site, Northern Song dynasty currency was recovered, and this indicates that the statues are from that period. This is supported by the fact that these two images are similar in style to eleventh-century Song statues. During the Mongol invasions, the region of P’an’gyo was severely affected and its entire population wiped out. Kṣitigarbha belief would have acquired currency as the area rehabilitated. This article puts forward the hypothesis that after the Mongol invasions, the statues, which originally represented Sengqie to “protect” the area, came to be regarded as images of Kṣitigarbha. The popularity of Kṣitigarbha belief, after the country suffered greatly from Mongol attacks, can be confirmed by the existence of Kṣitigarbha images that have survived from that period. Even if these statues are difficult to analyze on the basis of style and iconography, they show not only distinct regional characteristics, but are important examples that reveal the local beliefs of the late Koryŏ Dynasty.
키워드
P’an’gyo, Sengqie, Kṣitigarbha, Koryŏ, Song, Mongol
I. P’AN’GYO DISTRICT’S ZONE 10 BUILDING SITE, AND THE EXCAVATION OF BUDDHIST SCULPTURES
The three sculptures excavated from P’an’gyo in Sŏngnam City in 2008 are rare examples dating from the early Koryŏ period.
Plate 1. The Site of a Building in Area C of Zone 10
This article examines the period of manufacture of the gilt-bronze Buddha and Bodhisattva-like images excavated from Area C of Zone 10 in P’an’gyo District, as well as their characteristics and significance. As there are very few examples of early Koryŏ Buddhist statues for which the period of manufacture can be identified with the aid of written evidence or inscriptions, the sculptures of P’an’gyo are of great significance as early Koryŏ works. Analyzing the excavated material and the site in tandem could contribute to restoring the past culture and religion of the P’an’gyo area, and to a widening of the horizons of Koryŏ cultural studies.
The building site from which the Buddhist sculptures were recovered is in Zone 10 of the P’an’gyo housing site development area. Zone 10 is located at the end of the eastern mountain range of Mt. Kŭmt’o, which is to the east of the Sŏ-P’an’gyo area. From the ground survey conducted in 2001, the site of a building thought to date from the late Koryŏ to early Chosŏn period was confirmed. In consideration of the terrain, Zone 10 was divided into three parts, for excavation purposes. From the northwestern slope came Area A and B, and the eastern slope of the range became Area C. From Area A, eighteen wooden coffin tombs were recovered and two pits unearthed, whilst from Area B one stone coffin tomb and four wooden coffin tombs were recovered. From Area C, the discovery of a building and facilities, together with one stone coffin tomb and nine wooden coffin tombs, was confirmed.
Area C consists of two hills. The south-facing building site and its affiliated facilities were revealed from the western hill of Area C, which is on the northeastern side of Zone 10. From this building site, a large number of roof tiles and pottery pieces were excavated, and all date from the late Koryŏ to early Chosŏn period. Additionally, white porcelain from the Chosŏn period was excavated. The affiliated facilities site—featuring a floor-heating system—is adjacent to the east of the building site, and to the south of the affiliated facilities, a site where a stone lantern was supposedly located has been confirmed. Further south, a stone drainage system was found. The north of the building site is encircled by an outer wall, and between the building site and the wall, a stone terrace was found. The building site of Area C is small in size, and because not many buildings had been constructed during that period, it is highly likely that the site is of a hermitage rather than a large-scale temple.
The statues, small gilt-bronze stupā, and stone stupā were excavated from within and around the building site. From the central northern wall of the building site—where the discovery of foundation stones has been confirmed—the two Bodhisattva-like sculptures, celadon dishes, shards of earthenware pottery, and a great number of roof-tile fragments were unearthed. Roof-tile pieces were piled up in front of the southern foundation, from which the upper part of the small gilt-bronze stupā and one Vairocana Buddha were recovered. Three other pieces—presumably belonging to the top of a stone stupā—and one piece of a stone lantern were found as well, and numerous roof tiles were found in places where the building site’s surrounding walls once were. From the south of the adjacent affiliated facilities building, a furnace was found equipped with floor-heating systems; this finding indicates that the building had been used for residential purposes. Broken pieces of celadon, a celadon cup, roof tiles, and iron objects of unidentified use were also found there. The outer walls situated in the middle of the eastern slope of the excavation area encircle the building site to the south. A celadon cup, a white porcelain bowl, a small number of earthenware pottery shards, iron fragments, and numerous roof-tile fragments were found in the surrounding areas.
One point 160 cm southwest of the building site is thought to have been the site of a stone lantern. The floor is square-shaped and was filled with small and large stones to maintain a flat, level area; presumably, a stone lantern was erected on top. Roof tiles outnumber all other excavated artifacts from the building site of Area C in Zone 10 of P’an’gyo District. Various other artifacts—such as earthenware pottery shards, celadon and white porcelain shards, gilt-bronze artifacts such as the Buddha statue and the two statues that are the focus of this article, a stone stupā, stone lantern parts, and iron parts—were also excavated. Roof tiles were concentrated in many areas of the sites, and most have the stylistic characteristics of late Koryŏ–early Chosŏn roof tiles. This finding suggests the possibility of the building having stood until the early days of the Chosŏn period. The variety of excavated artifacts indicates that the Koryŏ period building had been demolished at the end of the Koryŏ dynasty, but that it was reconstructed during the Chosŏn period, when white porcelain was in use.
II. ICONOGRAPHY AND DATING OF THE BRONZE BUDDHIST STATUES
1. Iconography of the Two Monk Figure Statues: Arhat, Sengqie, or Kṣitigarbha?
The three Buddhist statues excavated from the Zone 10 of P’an’gyo are in excellent condition; their original forms have been fully preserved (
Plate 2. Three Sculptures Excavated from Area C of Zone 10 in P’an’gyo
The smallest statue of the three is of a figure whose hands are in the
Figures with hands held in prayer are usually thought to signify monks or arhats; therefore, this article will explore the possibility of these statues being arhats. Both are wearing monk’s robes and hoods on their heads, and both are holding the palms of their hands together in prayer. The arhats from the Five Dynasties period (907–960), Song period (960–1279), or late Koryŏ–early Chosŏn period were established as a group typically comprising 16, 25, or 500 arhats.
Plate 3. Three-color Glazed Sancai Ceramic Arhat, Liao Period
Plate 4. Piṇḍola-Bhāradvāja, around 1027, Chŏnju National Museum
Next, let us explore the possibility that the statues are images of Kṣitigarbha.
Plate 5. Bodhisattva Kṣitigarbha, 14th Century, Sŏnun Temple
Are the two statues excavated from P’an’gyo in fact Kṣitigarbha statues? These figures are wearing hoods similar to the depiction seen in the “Painting of Kṣitigarbha” and in the Kṣitigarbha statues from the late Koryŏ period, but they hold neither a staff nor a cintāmaṇi. They are, however, holding their hands together in prayer, and this differentiates them from the regular Kṣitigarbha images of that time. It is also difficult to say whether these two statues followed the example of the Kṣitigarbha images of the Unified Silla period, compared to the Kṣitigarbha images that hold a cintāmaṇi. These statues also lack decorations, compared to the Kṣitigarbha statues made during the late Koryŏ to the early Chosŏn period, which were adorned luxuriously with beaded necklaces. It is therefore difficult to argue that these statues are depictions of Kṣitigarbha, as they differ distinctly from other examples from the same period.
Another option, which is similar to the images of arhat or Kṣitigarbha, is that the image is of the Great Monk Sengqie (pronounced Sŭngga in Korean).
Plate 6. The Great Monk Sŭngga, 11th Century, Sŭngga Temple
The human figure in the middle of the stone stupā in Sajabinsin Temple in Chech’ŏn, North Ch’ungch’ŏng Province is presumed to be the figure of Sengqie.
Plate 7. The Great Monk Sŭngga, 1022, Sajabinsin Temple
The Sengqie images of China are confirmed as such by inscriptions with the name “Sengqie”; they also wear monk’s robes with hoods on their heads and hold their hands in the
Plate 8. The Great Monk Sengqie, Northern Song, Tazu Beishan, Cave 177, Sichuan, China
Before determining the iconography of the two statues excavated from the building site in P’an’gyo’s Zone 10, it is helpful to review their relationship to the Vairocana Buddha. As one Buddha statue and two statues with hoods were excavated at the same site, it can be inferred that the three were created as a triad; nonetheless, their stylistic differences make it highly improbable that the three statues were manufactured within the same period. It is also not customary to make the supportive Bodhisattvas larger than the main Buddha; therefore, it cannot be presumed that the three were made as a set from the outset. However, judging from their styles, their dates of manufacture do not seem to be overly divergent, and it appears that the three were likely made in the same workshop. The three statues were found at the same building site because they were probably enshrined in the building for different reasons. There is also the possibility of the two twin-like statues being placed at the sides of a yet-to-be-found Buddha. A case where two Bodhisattvas look exactly alike can be found in the example of the Vairocana Buddha triad at Yŏngt’ap Temple in Tangjin. Like the triad in Yŏngt’ap Temple, the two statues at P’an’gyo could have been made as the supporting figures of a triad, or they could have been made as independent objects of worship.
In East Asia, Kṣitigarbha tends to hold a cintāmaṇi; he may not have a staff, but he has a cintāmaṇi. However, the standing Kṣitigarbha statue at Sinan Temple in Kŭmsan holds neither a staff nor a cintāmaṇi; he merely holds his hands together in prayer (
Plate 9. Bodhisattva Kṣitigarbha, Early 14th Century, Sinan Temple
2. The historic transition of P’an’gyo during the late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn dynasties, and change leading to Kṣitigarbha belief
The two statues excavated from P’an’gyo appear to have originally been created as Sengqie images that went on to be worshipped as images of Kṣitigarbha. At the beginning, the view of Sengqie as a protector in the Sengqie faith would have constituted an important factor.
Plate 10. Tongyŏdo [Map around P’an’gyo Area], Late Chosŏn Period
No statues in Korea have been confirmed by any text to be in the image of Sengqie; nonetheless, Sengqie belief—which developed in the center of the Jiangnan region of China—was most probably transmitted to Koryŏ from Song China by travelers such as merchants, monks, and government officials. That belief is thought to have been introduced by these people, and it is believed that images of Sengqie were constructed so that they could pray for safe travel. As has been pointed out several times previously, the cult of Sengqie developed due to the fact that it formed a relationship with the royal family in the early Koryŏ period. As can be found in Yi Ye’s “Records of Establishing Sengqie Cave in Mt. Samgak,” the Koryŏ royalty “conducted three-day rituals in spring and autumn, and offered the King’s clothes.” This entry indicates the spiritual power of Sengqie Cave in Mt. Samgak and the faith that the Koryŏ royalty placed in it. Although the text refers to Sŭngga Temple, the scope of its contents cannot be limited solely to Sengqie Cave in Mt. Samgak.
Plate 11. Sŭngga, Koryŏ Period, Kŭmjang Hermitage
The bronze Vairocana Buddha from P’an’gyo has a slender face and a pointed
Plate 12. Buddha Vairocana, Koryŏ Period, Excavated from P’an’gyo
Nonetheless, the statues excavated from P’an’gyo differ from these; the details of the robes, in particular, show a striking difference. However, it is interesting that the two statues and the Vairocana Buddha share these details. These statues do not share any stylistic similarities with the statues of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries; rather, they have a similar base to the image of the Piṇḍola-Bhāradvāja statue housed in the Chŏnju National Museum.
Plate 13. Sengqie, 1068–1093, Northern Song Period, Xingjiao Temple, Shanghai, China
The Sŭngga images found in P’an’gyo, however, are wearing much more complicated and intricate hoods (
Plate 14. Sŭngga, Koryŏ Period, Excavated from P’an’gyo
It is not easy to date the three sculptures excavated from P’an’gyo, given that they display such different techniques from other known Koryŏ sculptures. All three exhibit very unique characteristics compared to other existing Koryŏ sculptures, and this makes it difficult to analyze their iconography and forms. There are not so many images dating to the twelfth century to compare them with. Besides these sculptures from P’an’gyo are definitely different from other Buddhist images in the late Koryŏ period. The stylistic features of the sculptures from P’an’gyo cannot be easily classified into any existing group of Koryŏ sculptures. These sculptures do not share visual similarities with statues from the tenth to eleventh centuries, not to mention the group of sculptures from the fourteenth century.
An example that the statues resemble most is the Buddha triad of Pyŏngnyŏn Hermitage (壁蓮庵) attached to Naejang Temple, of which only a photograph exists (
Plate 15. Buddha Triad with Bodhisattva Kṣitigarbha, Koryŏ, Pyŏngnyŏn Hermitage in Naejang Temple (Missing)
Chinese coins excavated from the site serve as strong supporting evidence of this theory, as most of this Chinese money is from after the eleventh century. A total of forty-seven pieces of Chinese currency were excavated from four wooden coffin tombs from Area A of P’an’gyo’s Zone 12. The earliest from the collection is the “Zhidao yuanbao” (至道元寶), which was in circulation between 995 and 997; the latest is the “Chongning zhongbao” (崇寧重寶), which was in circulation between 1102 and 1106.
The historical development of P’an’gyo was interrupted after the Mongol invasion in 1231. During the first invasion of the Mongols, the residents of Kwangju—including those of P’an’gyo—became exempt from corvée labor when they successfully fought off the Mongol army in the battle of Kwangju Mountain Fortress in 1232, under the leadership of Yi Se-hwa (李世華, ?–1238). The defeated Mongol army subsequently marched to Ch’ŏin Fortress (處仁城) in Yongin under the command of General Sartai, who was eventually killed by the monk general Kim Yun-hu (金允侯).
With regard to reconstructing the region, there are a few records worth noting. One record provides an account of a man called Cho Un-hŭl (趙云仡, 1332–1404) rebuilding the official government inn at P’an’gyo and becoming its director; other records testify to the P’an’gyo wŏn aiding those people who had travelled from the south in order to build the fortress in Hanyang (present-day Seoul), following the establishment of Chosŏn.
During the second excavation of the P’an’gyo area, approximately 740 tomb sites were found dating from the Koryŏ and Chosŏn periods; most of them were commoners’ tombs from the Chosŏn period. This indicates that after the fourteenth century, this area functioned as a regional graveyard.
Even if the cult of Kṣitigarbha was first introduced in the eighth century, the image of Kṣitigarbha is hardly found before the late Koryŏ period. This causes difficulty for scholars trying to investigate the cult of Kṣitigarbha in the Koryŏ period. This is the reason why we cannot be certain that the statues discovered from the P’an’gyo District were originally created as images of Bodhisattva Kṣitigarbha.
6 The 16 arhats are mentioned in
7 Choe Song-eun (Ch’oe Sŏng-ŭn), “Koryŏ sidae Pulgyo chogak ŭi tae-Song kwan’gye,” [Relations between Buddhist sculpture of Koryŏ and Song China],
8 Studies conducted on the Korean Kṣitigarbha images are cited in the following papers: Park Young-sook (Pak Yŏng-suk), “Kṣitigarbha as Supreme Lord of the Underworld,”
9 See Kim Junghee (Kim Chŏng-hŭi), Ibid., 32–47.
10 About the Great Monk Sengqie and the belief that he is the incarnation of Avalokiteśvara, see Yü Chün-fang,
11 For more on Sengqie belief, the following texts can be consulted. Makita Tairyo, “Chukoku ni okeru minzoku Bukkyo seiritsu no ichikatei - Shishu taisei sogawashyo ni tsuite · Tonkohon sandaishiden ni tsuite,” [The process of the establishment of Folk Buddhism in China; About Monk Sengqie, the Great Saint of Sizhou and The Stories of Three Great Monks from Dunhuang Scripture],
12 Representative entries vis-à-vis the cult of Sengqie can be found in Yi Ye’s “Records of Establishing the Sengqie Cave in Mt. Samgak” in
13 Kim Kyonghye (Kim Kyŏng-hye), “Sajabinsin saji sŏkt’ap Sŭnggasang koch’al” [A study on the stone statue on the pagoda at Sajabinsin Temple: noting its iconographical relation to the hooded Kṣitigarbha] (MA thesis, Korea University, 2010).
14 Ibid., 15–40.
15 Zan ning,
16 Nam Dongsin (Nam Tong-sin), “Pukhan-san Sŭngga taesa-sang kwa Sŭngga sinang,” [A study on the granite Sŭngga of Sŭngga Temple on Mt. Pukhan and the Sŭngga Faith],
17 The inscription “沙州大聖” is found on the wall of Cave 177. Based on evidence from the text written outside the cave, it is thought to date from either 1066 or 1126.
18 This main Buddha is a good comparison to the previously mentioned image in Minch’ŏn Temple at Kaesŏng. Choe Song-eun (Ch’oe Sŏng-ŭn), “Minch’ŏn-sa kŭmdong Amit’a puljwasang kwa Koryŏ hugi Pulgyo chogak,” [Minch’ŏn Temple’s gilt bronze statue of Amitabha and Buddhist sculpture in the late Koryŏ period],
19 Park Chanhee (Pak Ch’an-hŭi), ibid., 35–53.
20 From the year 894—when Sengqie appeared in dreams and warned of attacks from enemies—no temple lacked images of Sengqie.
21 For more information on the Naksaeng-yŏk (horse-changing station) and the P’an’gyo-jŏm (Official lodge), refer to Sŏngnam Cultural Center ed.,
22 Sŏngnam Cultural Center ed., ibid., 55–60; Sŏngnam Cultural Center ed.,
23 The written works of Yi Ye (李預), the
24 Yi Ye, ibid.
25 King Munjong sent his envoys to Song in 1072. It was 26th year of King Munjong. See
26 For more about the cult of Sengqie in Koryŏ, see Nam Dongsin (Nam Tong-sin), ibid., 5–48.
27 See the compilation from the National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage on the stone stupā of Kŭmjang Temple. National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage ed.,
28 The Piṇḍola-Bhāradvāja statue has been estimated to be from 1027 at the earliest, in relation to the establishment of the Yŏngt’ong Temple. However, the author disagrees with this estimation: in comparing it to the image in the stone stupā in Sajabinsin Temple site—which can be precisely dated to 1022—the stylistic differences are too great. For more information on Arhat beliefs, refer to Choe Song-eun (Ch’oe Sŏng-ŭn), “Uri nara ŭi nahan chogak” [Arhat images of Korea],
29 “Shanghai shi Songjiang xian Xingjiao si ta digong fajue jianbao,” [A brief report on the excavation of Xingjiao Temple Stupā at Songjiang County in Shanghai City],
30 Korea Cultural Heritage Foundation ed., ibid., (2008), 2. This includes twelve indistinguishable coins.
31 Korea Cultural Heritage Foundation ed., ibid. (2008), 2.
32 For the warfare at that time, see Yun Yonghyeok (Yun Yong-hyŏk), “1232 nyŏn Yongin Ch’ŏin-sŏng esŏ ŭi tae-Mong sŭngch’ŏp,” [The great victory against the Mongols at Ch’ŏin Fortress in Yongin, 1232],
33 “As the Mongol army headed towards Kwangju, Ch’ungju and Chŏnju, everyone in these places was killed and exterminated” December in the 18th year of King Kojong, Koryŏ.
34 This is still a ritual regularly conducted in Buddhist temples which uphold the traditions of placing importance on the Amitābha ritual, the Avalokiteśvara ritual, and the Kṣitigarbha ritual.
35 “By applauding and reciting the name of the Bodhisattva and creating images, one will not fall into the paths of evil.”
36 Mun Sangryeon (Mun Sang-nyŏn), “Chijang sinang ŭi chŏngae wa sinang ŭirye,” [A study on the development and religious ceremonies of Bodhisattva Kṣitigarbha faith],
37
38 Sŏngnam Cultural Center ed., ibid. (2001), 57.
39 Korea Cultural Heritage Foundation ed., ibid. (2008), chapter on the process and details of the survey.
40 Korea Cultural Heritage Foundation ed., ibid. (2008), pp. 5-10.
III. CONCLUSION: FROM SENGQIE TO KṢITIGARBHA
The three statues excavated from Sŏngnam during the housing site development project were produced from the early Koryŏ period onwards. They were excavated from a small building site in Zone 10 of P’an’gyo District, at the end of a mountain range that descends to the east of Mt. Kŭmt’o. During the ground survey, the foundations of a building thought to date from the late Koryŏ–early Chosŏn period were confirmed in several places; thereafter, the excavation was conducted in three parts, with the ground being divided by topography. Three statues were excavated from the eastern range of the mountain in Area C of Zone 10, which had been manufactured in different periods. They were a Vairocana Buddha with the
The iconography of the two statues with hands held together in prayer is not clear. It is possible that they are images of Kṣitigarbha, Sengqie, or an arhat, but none display any one typical iconography. This article starts from the hypothesis that the statues unearthed in P’an’gyo were created as Sengqie images and later came to be venerated as Kṣitigarbha images. These sculptures were buried as Kṣtitigarbha in the figure of Sengqie. All three statues show stylistic differences from other sculptures of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, most of which indicate that these three statues cannot be from this period. From the excavation site, several fragments of inlaid celadon bowls, a bronze mirror, and Northern Song coins in circulation during the tenth to twelfth centuries were recovered, and this indicates that the statues are from the same period as these artifacts; this hypothesis is further supported by the fact that the Sengqie images are similar in style to two eleventh-century statues. Therefore, the sculptures excavated from P’an’gyo can be dated as being from the early twelfth century. The two images with their hands held together in prayer were created by borrowing from the iconography of Sengqie; this was a widespread trend in Song China at this time. Later, reflecting the history of the P’an’gyo region, the images would have been worshipped as Kṣitigarbha by the fourteenth century.
The development of Kṣitigarbha belief was natural and accorded with changes in society. This development was also the reason for the wide distribution of Kṣitigarbha images in late Koryŏ Buddhist paintings and sculptures. During the Mongol invasions, the region of Kwangju—including P’an’gyo and Naksaeng—was severely affected, and its entire population almost wiped out. Therefore, Kṣitigarbha belief concerning guiding the spirits of the dead would have acquired currency as the area rehabilitated. In this context we can assume that the images produced as Sengqie to “protect” the area during the twelfth century would have been worshipped as Kṣitigarbha by the end of the Koryŏ period. From the beginning, Kṣitigarbha was worshipped by members of the general public who wished for salvation in the afterlife. The popularity of Kṣitigarbha belief during the late Koryŏ-early Chosŏn period—at a time when the country had suffered greatly from Mongol attacks—can be confirmed by the existence of Kṣitigarbha images that have survived from that period. The three statues, all of which are difficult to analyze solely on the bases of style and iconography, deserve attention, as they are uncommon examples of early Koryŏ period images. The images excavated from P’an’gyo show not only distinct regional characteristics, but are important examples that reveal local beliefs of the late Koryŏ period.
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[단행본]
2008
Sŏngnam P’an’gyo-dong yujŏk II- Sŏngnam P’an’gyo chigu munhwa yujŏk 2 ch’a sibalgul chosa pogosŏ [Report of the 2nd trial and main excavation for the cultural heritage of P’an’gyo District, Sŏngnam II]Korea Cultural Heritage Foundation
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[단행본]
1981-1984
“Chukoku ni okeru minzoku Bukkyo seiritsu no ichikatei - Shishu taisei sokawashyo ni tsuite · Tonkohon sandaishiden ni tsuite” [The process of the establishment of Folk Buddhism in China; About Monk Sengqie, the Great Saint of Sizhou and the Stories of Three Great Monks from Dunhuang Scripture].
Toho Gakuho 25 (1954). Reprinted inChukoku Bukkyo shi kenkyu [Studies in the history of Chinese Buddhism] 2 vols.Daito
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[단행본]
1997
“Zhongguo gudai fujiao wenhua jiaoliu liangli” [Two examples of the cultural exchange of ancient Buddhism in China].
Silk’ŭrodŭ munhwa wa Han’guk munhwa [Cultures of the Silk Road and cultures of Korea].Ch’ungnam University Press
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[참고문헌]
(2011)
“Chijang sinang ŭi chŏngae wa sinang ŭirye” [A study on the development and religious ceremonies of Bodhisattva Kṣitigarbha Faith]
Chŏngt’ohak yŏn’gu [Journal of Pure Land Buddhism]15 : 137 - 194
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[참고문헌]
(2000)
“Pukhan-san Sŭngga taesa-sang kwa Sŭngga sinang” [A study on the granite Sŭngga of Sŭngga Temple on Mt. Pukhan and the Sŭngga Faith]
Seoulhak yŏn’gu [The Journal of Seoul Studies]14
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[학위논문]
“Yŏmal sŏnch’o Chijang posalsang yŏn’gu” [A study on the Bodhisattva Kṣitigarbha sculptures of late Koryŏ and early Chosŏn]
2007
Ehwa Woman’s University / MA thesis
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[단행본]
2006
Sajin ŭro ponŭn Pukhan kukpo yujŏk [Photographs of National Treasures in North Korea].National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage
-
[학위논문]
“Chosŏn chŏn’gi t’ap pong’an Chijang posalsang yŏn’gu” [A study of the stupā enshrined Kṣitigarbha images in early Chosŏn]
2005
Tongguk University / MA thesis
-
[참고문헌]
1977
“Kṣitigarbha as Supreme Lord of the Underworld.”
Oriental Art 23
-
[참고문헌]
(1983)
“Shanghai shi Songjiang xian Xingjiao si ta digong fajue jianbao” [A brief report on the excavation of Xingjiao Temple Stupā at Songjiang County in Shanghai City]
Kaogu [Archeology]2
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[단행본]
2001
Sŏngnam ŭi munhwa yusan [History of the cultural heritage of Sŏngnam]Sŏngnam Cultural Center
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[단행본]
2009
Naksaeng maul-ji [Records of Naksaeng Village].Sŏngnam Cultural Center
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[단행본]
2010
Sŏngnam inmul-chi: Kwangbok ijŏn p’yŏn [People of Sŏngnam: Periods before Independence]Sŏngnam Cultural Center
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[단행본]
2001
Kuan-yin: The Chinese Transformation of Avalokiteśvara Columbia University Press
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[기타]
2008
“Sŏngnam P’an’gyo chigu munhwa yujŏk palgul ŭi sŏngkwa.” [The outcome of the cultural heritage excavation in P’an’gyo District, Sǒngnam City]
Che 13 hoe haksul hoeŭi palp’yo nonmun chip – P’an’gyo t’och’on chigu palgul munhwajae ŭi pojŏn pangan [13th academic symposium presentation papers – The conservation plan for the excavated cultural heritage of P’an’gyo and T’och’on Districts]
Local Culture Research Institute of the Sŏngnam Cultural Center
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[단행본]
2011
“1232 nyŏn Yongin Ch’ŏin-sŏng esŏ ŭi tae-Mong sŭngch’ŏp” [The great victory against the Mongols at Ch’ŏin Fortress in Yongin in 1232].
Yŏ-Mong chŏnjaeng kwa Kanghwa t’osŏng yŏn’gu [A study on the Fortress of Kanghwa and the Koryŏ-Mongol War]Hyean
1 “Early Koryŏ” refers to the period used as a standard in Korean art history that divides the history of Koryŏ into two periods. The division lies in 1270, the time when the Mongol invasion and occupation of Koryŏ took full force. Therefore, the period starting from the establishment of Koryŏ (918) to 1270 is considered “early Koryŏ,” whilst 1270–1392 is referred to as “late Koryŏ.”
2 See Korea Cultural Heritage Foundation ed.,Sŏngnam P’an’gyo chigu t’aekchi kaebal saŏp yejŏng puji munhwa yujŏk chip’yo chosa pogosŏ [Report on the Cultural Heritage Ground Survey of the proposed site for housing development in P’an’gyo District of Sŏngnam] (Sŏngnam: Korea Cultural Heritage Foundation, 2002).
3 Korea Cultural Heritage Foundation ed.,Sŏngnam P’an’gyo chigu munhwa yujŏk 2 ch’a palgul chosa- 8 ch’a chido wiwŏn hoeŭi charyo [Information for the 8th Advisory Meeting – 2nd Excavation for the Cultural Heritage of P’an’gyo District] (Sŏngnam: Korea Cultural Heritage Foundation, 2008a); Korea Cultural Heritage Foundation ed., Sŏngnam P’an’gyo-dong yujŏk II - Sŏngnam P’an’gyo chigu munhwa yujŏk 2 ch’a sibalgul chosa pogosŏ [Report of the 2nd Trial and Main Excavation for the Cultural Heritage of P’an’gyo District, Sǒngnam II] (Sŏngnam: Korea Cultural Heritage Foundation, 2008b). The reporter designated the areas by the han’gŭl terms “Ka”, “Na”, and “Ta”. Here for the convenience of the readers, I have changes them to “A”, “B”, and “C”.
4 Yun Seonyoung (Yun Sŏn-yŏng), “Sŏngnam P’an’gyo chigu munhwa yujŏk palgul ŭi sŏngkwa,” [The outcome of the cultural heritage excavation in P’an’gyo District, Sŏngnam City],Che 13 hoe haksul hoeŭi palp’yo nonmun chip – P’an’gyo t’och’on chigu palgul munhwajae ŭi pojŏn pang’an [13th academic symposium presentation papers – The conservation plan for the excavated cultural heritage of P’an’gyo and T’och’on Districts] (Sŏngnam: Local Culture Research Institute, Sŏngnam Cultural Center, 2008).
5 Detailed information on the building site and the related excavated sites in Area C in Zone 10 can be found in the excavation report of the Sŏngnam P’an’gyo District. Korea Cultural Heritage Foundation ed.,Sŏngnam P’an’gyo-dong yujŏk II - Sŏngnam P’an’gyo chigu munhwa yujŏk 2 ch’a sibalgul chosa pogosŏ.