Hostname: page-component-7c8c6479df-27gpq Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-03-28T22:33:49.850Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false

Out of Many, One: Style and Social Boundaries in Tiwanaku

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

John Wayne Janusek*
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, 37235

Abstract

Archaic state formation simultaneously involved political integration and socioeconomic differentiation, which many archaeologists consider mutually reinforcing processes. Differentiation is considered to have consisted primarily of status and specialization, forms of heterogeneity that ultimately supported state integration. This paper addresses the role of differentiation in the Andean polity of Tiwanaku (A. D. 500–1150). Specifically, it evaluates expressions of social identity in relation to differences in status and specialized production in the urban settlements of Tiwanaku and Lukurmata. Patterns of ceramic style are compared with other types of material culture and residential activities. Multiple lines of evidence suggest that, in the context of a potent and ubiquitous state culture, significant social boundaries persisted at multiple social scales, ranging from urban corporate groups to more encompassing regional affiliations. At larger scales identity potentially involved some degree of political autonomy, as it did in later sociopolitical organizations in the south-central Andes. For several hundred years, Tiwanaku rulers, facing profound social diversity and enduring local identities, emphasized incorporative strategies of integration, leaving a great deal of productive management and sociopolitical organization in the hands of local groups. Social boundaries played critical roles in state formation and centralization, and ultimately may have precipitated its disintegration.

La formación del estado arcaico involucraba simultáneamente integración política y diferenciación socioeconómica, procesos que muchos modelos consideran que se refuerzan mutuamente. Se considera que la diferenciación consistía principalmente en el estatus y la especializaciín, formas de heterogeneidad que a la larga mantenían la integración del estado. Este artículo trata del papel que cumplía la diferenciación en la entidad política de Tiwanaku (500–1500 d. C.). Específicamente, evalúa las expresiones de identidad social con relación a las diferencias de estatus y de producción especializada en los asentamientos urbanos de Tiwanaku y Lukurmata. Se comparan los patrones de estilo cerámico con otros tipos de cultura material y actividad residencial. En el contexto de una cultura estatal poderosa y notable, múltiples líneas de evidencia sugieren que en varias escalas sociales persistían significativos límites sociales, que oscilaban desde grupos urbanos corporativos hasta afiliaciones regionales de mayor cobertura. En escalas mayores la identidad involucraba potencialmente cierto grado de autonomía política, tal como en organizaciones sociopolíticas más tardías en los Andes sur-centrales. Por varios siglos, los gobernantes de Tiwanaku, enfrentando una profunda diversidad social e identidades locales fuertes, enfatizaron las estrategias corporativas de integración, dejando una gran cantidad de administración productiva y organización sociopolítica en las manos de los grupos locales. Los límites sociales jugaron papeles críticos en la formación y centralización del estado, y puede que hayan precipitado su desintegración.

Type
Articles
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 2002

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Abercrombie, Thomas A. 1986 The Politics of Sacrifice: An Aymara Cosmology in Action. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Abercrombie, Thomas A. 1998 Pathways of Memory and Power: Ethnography and History Among an Andean People. University of Wisconsin Press, Madison.Google Scholar
Albarrací-Jordán, Juan V. 1992 Prehispanic and Early Colonial Settlement Patterns in the Lower Tiwanaku Valley, Bolivia. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Southern Methodist University.Google Scholar
Albarrací-Jordán, Juan V. 1996 Tiwanaku Settlement System: The Integration of Nested Hierarchies in the Lower Tiwanaku Valley. Latin American Antiquity 7:183210.Google Scholar
Albarracín-Jordán, Juan V., and Mathews, J. E. 1990 Asentamientos prehispánicos del valle de Tiwanaku, Vol. 1. Producciones CIMA, La Paz.Google Scholar
Alconini Mujica, Sonia 1995 Rito, símbolo e historia en la pirámide de Akapana, Tiwanaku: un análisis de cerámica ceremonial prehispánica. Editorial Acción, La Paz.Google Scholar
Anderson, Benedict 1983 Imagined Communities. Verso, London.Google Scholar
Bandy, Matthew S. 1999 Productivity and Labor Scheduling Aspects of Titicaca Basin Raised Field Agriculture. Paper presented at the 64th Annual Conference of the Society for American Archaeology, Chicago.Google Scholar
Bandy, Matthew S., Cohen, Amanda B., Goldstein, Paul S., Agosto Cardona, R., and Antonio Oquiche, H. 1996 The Tiwanaku Occupation of Chen Chen (Ml): Preliminary Report on the 1995 Salvage Excavations. Paper presented at the 61st Annual Society for American Archaeology meetings, New Orleans, Louisiana.Google Scholar
Barth, Fredrik 1969 Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social Organization of Culture Difference. Little, Brown and Company, Boston.Google Scholar
Bastien, Joseph W. 1978 Mountain of the Condor: Metaphor and Ritual in an Andean Ayllu. West Publishing Company, New York.Google Scholar
Bawden, Garth 1993 An Archaeological Study of Social Structure and Ethnic Replacement in Residential Architecture of the Tumilaca Valley. In Domestic Architecture, Ethnicity, and Complementarity in the South-Central Andes, edited by Mark S. Aldenderfer, pp. 4254. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Bennett, Wendell C. 1934 Excavations at Tiahuanaco. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 34:359494. New York.Google Scholar
Bennett, Wendell C. 1936 Excavations in Bolivia. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History 35:329507. New York.Google Scholar
Bermann, Marc P. 1994 Lukurmata: Household Archaeology in Prehispanic Bolivia. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Bermann, Marc P. 1997 Domestic Life and Vertical Integration in the Tiwanaku Heartland. Latin American Antiquity 8:93112.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Binford, Michael W., Kolata, Alan L., Brenner, Mark, Janusek, John W., Seddon, Matthew T., Abbott, Mark, and Curtis, Jason H. 1997 Climate Variation and the Rise and Fall of an Andean Civilization. Quaternary Research 47:235248.Google Scholar
Blanton, Richard E., Feinman, Gary M., Kowalewski, Stephen A., and Peregrine, Peter N. 1996 A Dual-Processual Theory for the Evolution of Mesoamerican Civilization. Current Anthropology 37:114.Google Scholar
Blom, Deborah E. 1999 Tiwanaku Regional Interaction and Social Identity: A Bioarchaeological Approach. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Blom, Deborah E. 2002 Tiwanaku Group Dynamics: A Bioarchaeological Approach. In Us and Them: The Assignation of Ethnicity in the Andes, Methodological Approaches, edited by Richard Reycraft. Cotsen Institute of Archaeology, UCLA, Los Angeles, in press.Google Scholar
Bourdieu, Pierre 1977 Outline of a Theory of Practice. Translated by R. Nice. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Bouysse-Cassagne, Therese 1986 Urco and Uma: Aymara Concepts of Space. In Anthropological History of Andean Polities, edited by John V. Murra, Nathan Wachtel, and Jacques Revel. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Browman, David L. 1978 Toward the Development of the Tiahuanaco (Tiwanaku) State. In Advances in Andean Archaeology, edited by David L. Browman, pp. 327349. Mouton Publishers, The Hague.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Browman, David L. 1981 New Light on Andean Tiwanaku. American Scientist 69:408419.Google Scholar
Brumfiel, Elizabeth M. 1994 Ethnic Groups and Political Development in Ancient Mexico. In Factional Competition and Political Development in the New World, edited by Elizabeth M. Brumfiel and John W. Fox, pp. 89102. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Brumfiel, Elizabeth M., and Earle, Timothy K. 1987 Specialization, Exchange, and Complex Societies: An Introduction. In Specialization, Exchange, and Complex Societies, edited by Elizabeth M. Brumfiel and Timothy K. Earle, pp. 19. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Buechler, Hans C. 1980 The Masked Media: Aymara Fiestas and Social Interaction in the Bolivian Highlands. Mouton, The Hague.Google Scholar
Childe, Vere Gordon 1950 The Urban Revolution. Town Planning Review 21:317.Google Scholar
Choque Canqui, Roberto 1993 Sociedad y economía colonial en el sur andino. Hisbol, La Paz.Google Scholar
Cobo, Bernabé 1956[1653] Historia del Nuevo Mundo, Vol. II. Biblioteca de Autores Espanoles 92. Ediciones Atlas, Madrid.Google Scholar
Cobo, Bernabé 1990[1653] Inca Religion and Customs. Translated by R. Hamilton. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Cohen, Ronald 1978 Ethnicity: Problem and Focus in Anthropology. Annual Review of Anthropology 7:379403.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Comaroff, John, and Comaroff, Jean 1992 Ethnography and the Historical Imagination. Westview, Boulder.Google Scholar
Couture, Nicole C., and Sampeck, Kathryn 2002 Putuni: A History of Palace Architecture in Tiwanaku. In Tiwanaku and Its Hinterland: Archaeology and Paleoecology of an Andean Civilization, Vol. II, edited by Alan L. Kolata. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., in press.Google Scholar
Cowgill, George L. 1997 State and Society at Teotihuacan, Mexico. Annual Review of Anthropology 26:129161.Google Scholar
Crumley, Carole L. 1995 Heterarchy and the Analysis of Complex Societies. In Heterarchy and the Analysis of Complex Societies, edited by Robert M. Ehrenreich, Carole L. Crumley, and Janet E. Levy, pp. 14. Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 6. American Anthropological Association, Arlington, Virginia.Google Scholar
Crumley, Carole L., and Marquardt, William H. 1987 Regional Dynamics: Burgundian Landscapes in Historical Perspective. Academic Press, San Diego.Google Scholar
D’Altroy, Terence N. 1992 Provincial Power in the Inca Empire. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
DeBoer, Warren R. 1990 Interaction, Imitation, and Communication as Expressed in Style: The Ucayali Experience. In The Uses of Style in Archaeology, edited by Margaret Conkey and Christine Hastorf, pp. 82104. New Directions in Archaeology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
DeBoer, Warren R., and Moore, James A. 1982 The Measurement and Meaning of Stylistic Diversity. Ñawpa Pacha 20:147156.Google Scholar
Dietler, Michael 1996 Feasts and Commensal Politics in the Political Economy: Food, Power, and Status in Prehistoric Europe. In Food and the Status Quest: An Interdisciplinary Perspective, edited by Polly Wiessner and Wulf Schiefenhövel, pp. 87125. Berghahn Books, Oxford.Google Scholar
Dietler, Michael, and Herbich, Ingrid 1998 Habitus, Techniques, Style: An Integrated Approach to the Social Understanding of Material Culture and Boundaries. In The Archaeology of Social Boundaries, edited by Miriam T. Stark, pp. 232263. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Durkheim, Emile 1902[1893] The Division of Labor in Society. Macmillan, New York.Google Scholar
Emberling, Geoff 1997 Ethnicity in Complex Societies: Archaeological Perspectives. Journal of Archaeological Research 5:295344.Google Scholar
Ensor, Bradley E. 2000 Social Formations, Modo de Vida, and Conflict in Archaeology. American Antiquity 65:1542.Google Scholar
Erickson, Clark L. 1985 Applications of Prehistoric Andean Technology: Experiments in Raised Field Agriculture, Huatta, Lake Titicaca: 1981—1982. In Prehistoric Intensive Agriculture in the Tropics, edited by Ian S. Farrington, pp. 209232. British Archaeological Reports International Series 232(1). Oxford.Google Scholar
Erickson, Clark L. 1993 The Social Organization of Prehispanic Raised Field Agriculture in the Lake Titicaca Basin. In Economic Aspects of Water Management in the Prehispanic New World, edited by Vernon L. Scarborough and Barry L. Isaac, pp. 369426. JAI Press, Greenwich.Google Scholar
Fischer, Edward W. 1999 Cultural Logic and Maya Identity: Rethinking Constructivism and Essentialism. Current Anthropology 40:473499.Google Scholar
Franke, Evan 1995 Ceramic Craft Specialization at Ch’iji Jawira, Tiwanaku: Organization and Technology. Journal of the Steward Anthropological Society 23:111119.Google Scholar
Fried, Morton H. 1967 The Evolution of Political Society. Random House, New York.Google Scholar
Giddens, Anthony 1979 Central Problems in Social Theory: Action, Structure and Contradiction in Social Analysis. University of California Press, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Giesso, Martin 2000 Stone Tool Production in the Tiwanaku Heartland: The Impact of State Emergence and Expansion on Local Households. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Goldstein, Paul 1989 Omo, a Tiwanaku Provincial Center in Moquegua, Peru. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Headrick, Annabeth 1996 The Teotihuacan Trinity: UnMASKing the Political Structure. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin.Google Scholar
Hebdige, Dick 1979 Subculture: The Meaning of style. Routledge, New York.Google Scholar
Helms, Mary W. 1993 Craft and the Kingly Ideal: Art, Trade, and Power. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Hill, James N. 1970 Prehistoric Social Organization in the American Southwest: Theory and Method. In Reconstructing Prehistoric Pueblo Societies, edited by William A. Longacre, pp. 1158. University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque.Google Scholar
Hodder, Ian 1982 Symbols in Action. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Hodder, Ian 1990 Style as Historical Quality. In The Uses of Style in Archaeology, edited by Margaret W. Conkey and Christine A. Hastorf, pp. 4451. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Holland, Dorothy, William Lachicotte, J., Skinner, Debra, and Cain, Carole 1998 Identity and Agency in Cultural Worlds. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Hoshower, Lisa M., Buikstra, Jane E., Goldstein, Paul S., and Webster, Ann D. 1995 Artificial Cranial Deformation in the Omo M10 Site: a Tiwanaku Complex from the Moquegua Valley, Peru. Latin American Antiquity 6:145164.Google Scholar
Isbell, William H. 1997 Mummies and Mortuary Monuments. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Izko, Xavier 1986 Comunidad andina: persistencia y cambio. Revista Andina 4:59129.Google Scholar
Izko, Xavier 1992 La doble frontera: ecología, política y ritual en el altiplano central. Hisbol/Ceres, La Paz.Google Scholar
Janusek, John W. 1993 Nuevos datos sobre el significado de la producción y uso de instrumentos musicales en el estado de Tiwanaku. Pumapunku: Nueva Epoca 2(4):947.Google Scholar
Janusek, John W. 1994 State and Local Power in a Prehispanic Andean Polity: Changing Patterns of Urban Residence in Tiwanaku and Lukurmata, Bolivia. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Janusek, John W. 1999 Craft and Local Power: Embedded Specialization in Tiwanaku Cities. Latin American Antiquity 10:107131.Google Scholar
Janusek, John W. 2002a Vessels, Time, and Society: Toward a Chronology of Ceramic Style in the Tiwanaku Heartland. In Tiwanaku and its Hinterland: Archaeology and Paleoecology of an Andean Civilization, Vol. II, edited by Alan L. Kolata. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., in press.Google Scholar
Janusek, John W. 2002b The Changing Face of Tiwanaku Residential Life: State and Local Identity in an Andean City. In Tiwanaku and Its Hinterland: Archaeological and Paleoecological Investigations of an Andean Civilization, Vol. II, edited by Alan L. Kolata. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., in press.Google Scholar
Janusek, John W., Sonia Alconini, M., Angelo, Dante, Aranda, Karina, and Lima, Pilar 1995 Organización del patrón de asentamiento prehispánico en la región de Icla, Chuquisaca, Bolivia. Report submitted to the Universidad Mayor de San Andres and Instituo Nacional de Arqueologia, La Paz.Google Scholar
Janusek, John W., and Blom, Deborah E. 2002 Identifying Tiwanaku Urban Populations: Style, Identity, and Ceremony in Andean Cities. In Population and Preindustrial Cities: A Cross-Cultural Perspective, edited by Glenn Storey. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, in press.Google Scholar
Janusek, John W., and Earnest, Howard 1990a Urban Residence and Land Reclamation in Lukurmata: A View from the Core Area. In Tiwanaku and its Hinterland, edited by Alan L. Kolata, pp. 118143. Unpublished report submitted to the National Science Foundation and the National Endowment for the Humanities, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Janusek, John W., and Earnest, Howard 1990b Excavations in the Putuni: the 1988 Season. In Tiwanaku and its Hinterland, edited by A. L. Kolata, pp. 23646. Unpublished report submitted to the National Science Foundation and the National Endowment for the Humanities, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Janusek, John Wayne, and Kolata, Alan L. 2002 Prehispanic Rural History in the Rio Katari Valley. In Tiwanaku and Its Hinterland: Archaeological and Paleoecological Investigations of an Andean Civilization, Vol. II, edited by Alan L. Kolata. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., in press.Google Scholar
Jones, Sian 1997 The Archaeology of Ethnicity: Contrasting Identities in the Past and Present. Routledge, London.Google Scholar
Joyce, Arthur A., and Winter, Marcus 1996 Ideology, Power, and Urban Society in Pre-Hispanic Oaxaca. Current Anthropology 37:3386.Google Scholar
King, Eleanor, and Potter, Daniel 1994 Small Sites in Prehistoric Maya Socioeconomic Organization: A Perspective from Colha, Belize. In Archaeological Views from the Countryside: Village Communities in Early Complex Societies, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and Steven E. Falconer, pp. 6490. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Kolata, Alan L. 1986 The Agricultural Foundations of the Tiwanaku State: A View from the Heartland. American Antiquity 51:748762.Google Scholar
Kolata, Alan L. 1991 The Technology and Organization of Agricultural Production in the Tiwanaku State. Latin American Antiquity 2:99125.Google Scholar
Kolata, Alan L. 1992 Economy, Ideology, and Imperialism in the South-Central Andes. In Ideology and Pre-Columbian Civilizations, edited by Arthur A. Demarest and Geoffrey W. Conrad, pp. 6585. School of American Research, Santa Fe.Google Scholar
Kolata, Alan L. 1993 Tiwanaku: Portrait of an Andean Civilization. Black-well, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Kolata, Alan L., and Ortloff, Charles R. 1996 Tiwanaku Raised-Field Agriculture in the Lake Titi-caca Basin of Bolivia. In Tiwanaku and Its Hinterland: Archaeology and Paleoecology of an Andean Civilization, Vol. 1, edited by Alan L. Kolata, pp. 109152. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Kolata, Alan L., Rivera, Oswlado, Ramírez, Juan Carlos, and Gemio, Evelyn 1996 The Natural and Human Setting. In Tiwanaku and its Hinterland: Archaeology and Paeloecology of an Andean Civilization, Vol. I, edited by Alan L. Kolata, pp. 203230. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
La Barre, Weston 1941 The Uru of the Rio Desaguadero. American Anthropologist 43:493522.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Lewellen, Ted C. 1983 Political Anthropology: An Introduction. Bergin and Garvey Publishers, South Hadley, Massachusetts.Google Scholar
Longacre, William A. 1964 Archaeology as Anthropology: A Case Study. Science 144:14541455.Google Scholar
Lumbreras, Luis G. 1981 Arqueología de la América andina. Editorial Milla Batres, Lima.Google Scholar
Manzanilla, Linda 1992 Akapana: una pirámide en el centro del mundo. Universidad Naeional Autonoma de México, Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas, Mexico City.Google Scholar
Manzanilla, Linda 1996 Corporate Groups and Domestic Activities at Teotihuacan. Latin American Antiquity 7:228246.Google Scholar
Martínez, Gabriel 1989 Espacio y pensamiento I: Andes meridionales. Hisbol, La Paz.Google Scholar
Mathews, James E. 1992 Prehispanic Settlement and Agriculture in the Middle Tiwanaku Valley, Bolivia. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Mauss, Marcel 1967 The Gift: Forms and Functions of Exchange in Archaic Societies. W. W. Norton … Company, New York.Google Scholar
McGuire, Randall H. 1983 Breaking Down Cultural Complexity: Inequality and Heterogeneity. Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory 6:91142.Google Scholar
Mercado de Peñalosa, Pedro 1965 [1583] Relatión de la provincia de los Pacajes. In Relaciones geogrñficas de Indias—Perú, edited by Marcos Jiménez de la Espada, pp. 334341. Biblioteca de Autores Españoles 183. Madrid.Google Scholar
Metraux, Alfred 1936 Contribution a l’etnographie et a la linguistique des Indiens Uro d’Acoaqui. Journal de la Societe des Americanistes 28:75110.Google Scholar
Murra, John V. 1980 [1956] The Economic Organization of the Inka State. JAI Press, Greenwich.Google Scholar
Paddock, John 1983 The Oaxaca Barrio at Teotihuacan. In The Cloud People: Divergent Evolution of the Zapotec and Mixtec Civilizations, edited by Kent V. Flannery and Joyce Marcus, pp. 170175. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Parssinen, Martti 1992 Tawantinsuyu: The Inka State and its Political Organization. Societas Historica Finlandiae, Helsinki.Google Scholar
Platt, Tristan 1982 Estado boliviano y ayllu andino: tierra y tributo en el norte de Potosí. Instituto de Estudios Peruanos, Lima.Google Scholar
Piatt, Tristan 1987 Entre ch’axwa y muxsa: para una historia del pensamiento político Aymara. In Tres reflexiones sobre el pensamiento andino, edited by Therese Bouysse-Cassagne, Olivia Harris, Tristan Platt, and Veronica Careceda, pp. 61132. Hisbol, La Paz.Google Scholar
Pollock, Susan 1983 Style and Information: An Analysis of Susiana Ceramics. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 2:354390.Google Scholar
Ponce Sanginés, Carlos 1981 Tiwanaku: Espacio, tiempo, cultura: Ensayo de síntesis arqueológica. Los Amigos del Libro, La Paz, Bolivia.Google Scholar
Rasnake, Roger 1987 Domination and Cultural Resistence: Authority and Power Among an Andean People. Duke University Press, Durham.Google Scholar
Rattray, Evelyn C. 1987 Los barrios foráneos de Teotihuacan. In Teotihuacan: nuevos datos, nuevas síntesis, nuevos problemas, edited by Emily McClung de Tapia and Evelyn C. Rattray, pp. 243274. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City.Google Scholar
Rattray, Evelyn C. 1990 The Identification of Ethnic Affiliation at the Merchants’ Barrio, Teotihuacan. In Etnoarqueología: primer coloquio Bosch-Gimpera, edited by Yoko Sugiura and Mari C. Serra, pp. 113138. Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicos, UNAM, Mexico City.Google Scholar
Reents-Budet, Dorie 1998 Elite Maya Pottery and Artisans as Social Indicators. In Craft and Social Identity, edited by Cathy L. Costin and Rita P. Wright, pp. 7189. Archaeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association 8. American Anthropological Association, Arlington, Virginia.Google Scholar
Reinhard, Johan 1985 Chavín and Tiahuanacu: A New Look at Two Andean Ceremonial Centers. National Geographic Research 1:395422.Google Scholar
Rivera Casanovas, Claudia S. 1994 Ch’iji Jawira: evidencias sobre la producción de cerámica en Tiwanaku. Licenciatura thesis, Department of Anthropology and Archaeology, Universidad Mayor de San Andrés.Google Scholar
Rostworowski de Diez Canseco, María 1999 History of the Inca Realm, translated by Harry B. Iceland. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Rowe, John H. 1946 Inca Culture at the Time of the Spanish Conquest. In The Andean Civilizations, Handbook of South American Indians Volume 2, edited by Julian H. Steward, pp. 183330. Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 143, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Rydén, Stig 1959 Andean Excavations 2: Tupuraya and Cayhuasi, Two Tiahuanaco Sites. Ethnographical Museum of Sweden, Stockholm.Google Scholar
Sahlins, Marshall D. 1985 Islands of History. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.Google Scholar
Saignes, Thierry 1985 Los Andes orientates: historia de un olvido. IFEA/CERES, Cochabamba.Google Scholar
Saignes, Thierry 1986 The Ethnic Groups in the Valleys of Larecaja: From Descent to Residence. In Anthropological History of Andean Polities, edited by John V. Murra, Nathan Wachtel, and Jacques Revel, pp. 311341. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Sampeck, Kathryn E. 1991 Excavations at Putuni, Tiwanaku, Bolivia. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Schaedel, Richard P. 1988 Andean World View: Hierarchy or Reciprocity, Regulation or Control? Current Anthropology 29:768775.Google Scholar
Schortman, Edward M. 1989 Interregional Interaction in Prehistory: The Need for a New Perspective. American Antiquity 54:5265.Google Scholar
Schreiber, Katharina J. 1992 Wari Imperialism in Middle Horizon Peru. Anthropological Papers 87, Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Schwartz, Theodore 1995 Ethnic Identity. In Ethnic Identity: Creation, Conflict, and Accommodation, edited by Lola Romanucci-Ross and Geroge A. De Vos, pp. 4872. Altamira Press, Walnut Creek, California.Google Scholar
Seddon, Matthew T. 1994 Excavations in the Raised Fields of the Rio Catari Sub-Basin, Bolivia. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago, Chicago.Google Scholar
Seddon, Matthew T. 1998 Ritual, Power, and the Development of a Complex Society. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Service, Elman R. 1975 Origins of the State and Civilization: The Process of Political Evolution. Norton, New York.Google Scholar
Shennan, Stephen 1989 Introduction: Archeological Approaches to Cultural Identity. In Archeological Approaches to Cultural Identity, edited by Steven Shennan, pp. 113. Unwin Hyman, London.Google Scholar
Silverblatt, Irene 1987 Moon, Sun, and Witches: Gender Ideologies and Class in Inca and Colonial Peru. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Smith, Michael E. 1987 Household Possessions and Wealth in Agrarian States: Implications for Archaeology. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 6:297335.Google Scholar
Smith, Michael E. 1994 Social Complexity in the Aztec Countryside, In Archaeological Views from the Countryside: Village Communities in Early Complex Societies, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and Steven E. Falconer, pp. 143159. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Smith, Monica 1999 The Role of Ordinary Goods in Premodern Exchange. Journal of Archaeological Method and Theory 6:109135.Google Scholar
Spence, Michael W. 1981 Obsidian Production and the State in Teotihuacan. American Antiquity 46:769788.Google Scholar
Squier, Ephraim G. 1877 Peru: Incidents of Travel and Exploration in the Land of the Incas. Harper Brothers, New York.Google Scholar
Stanish, Charles 1989 Tamaño y complejidad de los asentamientos nucleares de Tiwanaku. In Arqueología de Lukunnata, Vol. 2, edited by Alan L. Kolata, pp. 4157. Instituto Nacional de Arqueología and Ediciones Puma Punku, La Paz.Google Scholar
Stanish, Charles 1994 The Hydraulic Hypothesis Revisited: Lake Titicaca Basin Raised Fields in Theoretical Perspective. Latin American Antiquity 5:312332.Google Scholar
Stanish, Charles, Vega, Edmundo de la, and Frye, Kirk L. 1993 Domestic Architecture on Lupaqa Area Sites in the Department of Cuzco. In Domestic Architecture, Ethnicity, and Complementarity in the South-Central Andes, edited by Mark S. Aldenderfer, pp. 8393. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Stein, Gil 1994 Segmentary States and Organizational Variation in Early Complex Societies: A Rural Perspective. In Archaeological Views from the Countryside: Village Communities in Early Complex Societies, edited by Glenn M. Schwartz and Steven E. Falconer, pp. 1018. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C.Google Scholar
Upham, Steadman 1990 The Evolution of Political Systems: Socio-politics in Small Scale Sedentary Societies. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Vranich, Alexei 1999 Interpreting the Meaning of Ritual Spaces: The Temple Complex of Pumapunku, Tiwanaku, Bolivia Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Pennsylvania.Google Scholar
Wallace, Dwight T. 1980 Tiwanaku as a Symbolic Empire. Estudios Arqueológicos. Homenaje al VII Congreso de Arqueología Chilena 5:133144.Google Scholar
Weber, Max 1947 The Theory of Social and Economic Organization. Translated and edited by A. M. Henderson and Talcott Parsons. The Free Press, New York.Google Scholar
Weber, Max 1958 The City. In The City, edited by Don Martingale and Gertrude Neuwirth, pp. 65230. The Free Press, New York.Google Scholar
Wiessner, Polly 1983 Style and Social Information in Kalahari San Projectile Points. American Antiquity 48:25376.Google Scholar
Wiessner, Polly 1990 Is There a Unity to Style? In The Uses of Style in Archaeology, edited by Margaret Conkey and Christine Hastorf, pp. 105112. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Wilson, Richard 1993 Anchored Communities: Identity and History of the Maya-Q’eqchi. Man 28:121138.Google Scholar
Wise, Karen 1993 Late Intermediate Period Architecture of Lukurmata. In Domestic Architecture, Ethnicity, and Complementarity in the South-Central Andes, edited by Mark S. Aldenderfer, pp. 103113. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Wobst, H. Martin 1977 Stylistic Behavior and Information Exchange. In For the Director: Research Essays in Honor of James B. Griffin, edited by Charles E. Cleland, pp. 31742. Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Wright, Henry T., and Johnson, Gregory A. 1975 Population, Exchange and Early State Formation in Southwestern Iran. American Anthropologist 77:267289.Google Scholar
Wright, Melanie F., Hastorf, Christine A., and Lennstrom, Heidi 2002 Tiwanaku Through an Archaeobotanical Lens. In Tiwanaku and Its Hinterland: Archaeological and Paleoecological Investigations of an Andean Civilization, Vol. II, edited by Alan L. Kolata. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, D.C., in press.Google Scholar