Hostname: page-component-848d4c4894-4hhp2 Total loading time: 0 Render date: 2024-05-07T19:19:04.846Z Has data issue: false hasContentIssue false
  • English
  • Français

Tiwanaku Temples and State Expansion: A Tiwanaku Sunken-Court Temple in Moquegua, Peru

Published online by Cambridge University Press:  20 January 2017

Paul Goldstein
Paul Goldstein*
Affiliation:
Department of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History, 79th Street and Central Park West, New York, NY 10024
Get access Rights & Permissions [Opens in a new window]

Abstract

Until recently, an entrenched view of Tiwanaku expansion in the south-central Andes as a primarily cultic phenomenon precluded discussion of state-built ceremonial facilities outside of Tiwanaku’s immediate hinterland of the Bolivian altiplano. However, recent research in the Tiwanaku periphery has found specialized ceremonial architecture that reflects the solidification of central control and the development of a provincial system. Excavation at the Omo M10 site, in Moquegua, Peru, has exposed the only Tiwanaku sunken-court temple structure and cut-stone architecture known outside of the Titicaca Basin. A reconstruction of the Omo temple complex demonstrates direct parallels with Tiwanaku ceremonial centers of the altiplano in architectural form and ceremonial activities. This suggests that patterns of state-centered ceremony and peripheral administration underwent a dramatic transformation with the explosive expansion of the Tiwanaku state during the period known as Tiwanaku V (A. D. 725–1000).

En los últimos años, una restringida visión de la expansión de Tiwanaku (Tiahuanaco) en la zona centro surandina principalmente como un fenómeno de culto, excluía la discusión de las instalaciones ceremoniales construidas por el estado fuera del territorio inmediato de Tiwanaku en el altiplano boliviano. Sin embargo, recientes investigaciones en la periferia de Tiwanaku han encontrado arquitectura ceremonial especializada que refleja la solidificación de un control central y el desarrollo de un sistema provincial. Las excavaciones en el sitio Omo M10 en Moquegua (Perú) han descubierto el único templo con patio hundido y arquitectura de bloques de piedra labrada que se conoce fuera de la cuenca del Titicaca. Una reconstrucción del complejo del templo de Omo muestra paralelos directos con centros ceremoniales Tiwanaku del altiplano en su forma arquitectónica y actividades ceremoniales. Esto sugiere que los modelos del ritual estatal y la administración periférica pasaron por una dramática transformación con la explosiva expansión del estado Tiwanaku durante el período conocido como Tiwanaku V (725–1000 D. C.).

Type
Articles
Information
Latin American Antiquity , Volume 4 , Issue 1 , March 1993 , pp. 22 - 47
Copyright
Copyright © Society for American Archaeology 1993

Access options

Get access to the full version of this content by using one of the access options below. (Log in options will check for institutional or personal access. Content may require purchase if you do not have access.)

References

References Cited

Abercrombie, T. 1986 The Politics of Sacrifice: An Aymara Cosmology in Action. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, The University of Chicago.Google Scholar
Albarracín-Jordan, J., and Mathews, J. E. 1990 Asentamientos prehispánicos del valle de Tiwanaku, vol. 1. CIMA, La Paz.Google Scholar
Bennett, W. 1934 Excavations at Tiahuanaco. Anthropological Papers Vol. 34. American Museum of Natural History, New York.Google Scholar
Bennett, W. 1936 Excavations in Bolivia. Anthropological Papers Vol. 35. American Museum of Natural History, New York.Google Scholar
Berberian, E. 1977 El problema de la expansión de la cultura de Tiwanaku en el noroeste Argentine. Arqueología en Bolivia y Perú, tomo II, pp. 171–179. La Paz.Google Scholar
Berenguer, J. R. 1978 La problemática Tiwanaku en Chile: Visión retrospectiva. Revista Chilena de Antropología 1:17–40.Google Scholar
Berenguer, J. R. 1985 Evidencias de inhalation de alucinogenos en esculturas Tiwanaku. Revista Chungard 14:61–70.Google Scholar
Berenguer, J. R. 1986 Relaciónes iconográficas de larga distancia en los Andes: Nuevos ejemplos para un viejo problema. Boletín del Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino 1:55–78. Santiago.Google Scholar
Berenguer, J. R., and H., P. Dauelsberg 1989 El Norte Grande en la órbita de Tiwanaku (400 a 1,200 d.C). In Culturas de Chile, prehistoria desde sus orígenes hasta los albores de la conquista, edited by J. Hidalgo L., V. Schiappacasse F., H. Niemeyer F., C. Aldunate Del S., and I. Solimano R., pp. 129–180. Editorial Andres Bello, Santiago de Chile.Google Scholar
Bird, J. 1943 Excavations in Northern Chile. Anthropological Papers Vol. 38. American Museum of Natural History, New York.Google Scholar
Browman, D. 1978a Toward the Development of the Tiahuanaco (Tiwanaku) State. In Advances in Andean Archaeology, edited by D. Browman, pp. 327–349. Mouton, The Hague.Google Scholar
Browman, D. 1978b The Temple of Chiripa, Lake Titicaca, Bolivia. In III Congreso peruano, el hombre y la cultura andina, edited by R. Matos M., pp. 807–813. Lima.Google Scholar
Browman, D. 1980 Tiwanaku Expansion and Altiplano Economic Pattern. Estudios Arqueológicos 5:107–120. Universidad de Chile, Antofagasta.Google Scholar
Browman, D. 1984a Tiwanaku: Development of Interzonal Trade and Economic Expansion in the Altiplano. In Social and Economic Organization in the Prehispanic Andes, edited by D. Browman, R. Burger, and M. Rivera, pp. 117–142. BAR International Series 194. British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Browman, D. 1984b Prehistoric Aymara Expansion, the Southern Altiplano and San Pedro de Atacama. Estudios Atacameños 7:236–252. San Pedro de Atacama.Google Scholar
Browman, D. 1985 Cultural Primacy of Tiwanaku in the Development of Later Peruvian States. In La problemática Tiwanaku Huari en el contextopanandino deldesarrollo cultural, edited by M. A. Rivera, pp. 59–72. Diálogo Andino No. 4. Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica.Google Scholar
Buechler, H., and Buechler, J. M. 1971 The Bolivian Aymara. Holt Rinehart and Winston, New York.Google Scholar
Byrne de Caballero, G. 1984 El Tiwanaku en Cochabamba. Arqueología Boliviana 1:67–72.Google Scholar
Casanova, E. 1937 Investigaciones arqueológicas en el altiplano Boliviano. Relaciones de la Sociedad Argentina de Antropología 1:167–175. Buenos Aires.Google Scholar
Casanova, E. 1942 Dos yacimientos arqueológicos en la península de Copacabana (Bolivia). Anales del Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales XL:333–339. Buenos Aires.Google Scholar
Chavez, S. J. 1976 The Arapa Thunderbolt Stelae: A Case of Stylistic Identity with Implications for Pucara Influences in the Area of Tiahuanaco. Ñawpa Pacha 13:3–25.Google Scholar
Chavez, S. J. 1981 Notes on Some Stone Sculpture from the Northern Lake Titicaca Basin. Ñawpa Pacha 19:79–92.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Cieza de León, P. 1959 [1551] The Incas. Translated by H. de Onis, with an introduction by V. W. von Hagen. University of Oklahoma Press, Norman.Google Scholar
Cobo, B. 1984 [1653] History of the Inca Empire: An Account of the Indian’s Customs and Their Origin Together with a Treatise on Inca Legends, History and Social Institutions, edited and translated by R. Hamilton. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Conklin, W. 1983 Pucara and Tiahuanaco Tapestry: Time and Style in a Sierra Weaving Tradition. Ñawpa Pacha 21:1–45.CrossRefGoogle Scholar
Conklin, W. 1991 Tiwanaku and Huari: Architectural Comparisons and Interpretations. In Huari Administrative Structure: Prehistoric Monumental Architecture and State Government, edited by W. Isbell and G. McEwan, pp. 281–292. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Cook, A. 1983 Aspects of State Ideology in Huari and Tiwanaku Iconography: The Central Diety and the Sacrificer. In Investigations of the Andean Past, edited by D. Sandweiss, pp. 161–185. Cornell University Press, Ithaca.Google Scholar
Cook, A. 1985 The Politico-Religious Implications of the Huari Offering Traditions. In La problemdtica Tiwanaku Huari en el contexto panandino del desarrollo cultural, edited by M. A. Rivera, pp. 203–222. Dialogo Andino No. 4. Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica.Google Scholar
D’Altroy, T. 1981 Empire Growth and Consolidation: The Xauxa Region of Peru Under the Incas. Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles. University Microfilms, Ann Arbor.Google Scholar
Dauelsberg, P. 1985 Desarrollo regional en los valles costeros del norte de Chile. In La problemática Tiwanaku Huari en el contexto panandino del desarrollo cultural, edited by M. A. Rivera, pp. 277–287. Diálogo Andino No. 4. Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica.Google Scholar
Demarest, A. 1981 Viracocha, The Nature and Antiquity of the Andean High God. Peabody Museum Monographs No. 6. Harvard University, Cambridge.Google Scholar
DeBenedetti, S. 1911 Influencias de la cultura de Tiahuanaco en la región del noroeste Argentino. Revista de la Universidad de Buenos Aires 17:326–348 Google Scholar
de Montmollin, O. 1989 The Archaeology of Political Structure. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Dillehay, T. 1977 Tawantinsuyu Integration of the Chillon Valley, Peru: A Case of Inca Geo-political Mastery. Journal of Field Archaeology 4:397–405.Google Scholar
Disselhoff, H. D. 1968 Huari und Tiahuanaco: Grabungen und Funde in Süd-Peru. Zeitschrift für Ethnologie 93:207–216.Google Scholar
Feldman, R. A. 1989 The Early Ceramic Periods of Moquegua. In Ecology, Settlement and History in the Osmore Drainage, Peru, edited by D. S. Rice, C. Stanish, and P. Scarr, pp. 207–217. BAR International Series 545(i). British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Focacci A., G. 1981 Nuevos fechados para la época del Tiahuanaco en la arqueología del norte de Chile. Revista Chungará 8:63–77.Google Scholar
Focacci A., G. 1983 El Tiwanaku clásico en el valle de Azapa. In Asentamientos aldeanos en los valles costeros de Arica. Documentos de Trabajo No. 3. Instituto de Antropología y Arqueología, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica.Google Scholar
Gasparini, G., and Margolies, L. 1977 Arquitectura inka. Centro de Investigaciones Históricas y Estéticas, Facultad de Arquitectura y Urbanismo, Universidad Central de Venezuela, Caracas.Google Scholar
Girault, L. 1987 Kallawaya, curanderos itinerantes de los Andes: Investigación sobre prácticas medicinales y mágicas. UNICEF, Impresores Quipus, La Paz.Google Scholar
Girault, L. 1990 La cerámica del Templete Semisubterráneo de Tiwanaku. Centro de Estudios de la Realidad Económica y Social, La Paz.Google Scholar
Goldstein, P. 1985 Tiwanaku Ceramics of the Moquegua Valley, Peru. Unpublished Master’s thesis, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago, Chicago.Google Scholar
Goldstein, P. 1989a Omo, a Tiwanaku Provincial Center in Moquegua, Peru. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of Chicago, Chicago.Google Scholar
Goldstein, P. 1989b The Tiwanaku Occupation of Moquegua. In Ecology, Settlement and History in the Osmore Drainage, Peru, edited by D. S. Rice, C. Stanish, and P. Scarr, pp. 219–256. BAR International Series 545(i). British Archaeological Reports, Oxford.Google Scholar
Goldstein, P. 1990a La cultura tiwanaku y la relatión de sus fases cerámicas en Moquegua. In Trabajos arqueológicos en Moquegua, Peru, edited by L. K. Watanabe, M. Moseley, and F. Cabieses, pp. 31–58. Editorial Escuela Nueva, Lima.Google Scholar
Goldstein, P. 1990b La ocupación tiwanaku en Moquegua. Gaceta Arqueológica Andina V(18–19):75–104.Google Scholar
Goldstein, P. 1993 House, Community and State in the Earliest Tiwanaku Colony: Domestic Patterns and State Integration at Omo Ml2, Moquegua. In Domestic Architecture, Ethnicity, and Complementarity in the South-Central Andes, edited by M. Aldenderfer, pp. 25–41. University of Iowa Press, Iowa City.Google Scholar
Goldstein, P., and Bermann, M. 1992 Death a Long Way from Home: Tiwanaku Burial Practice in Moquegua, Peru. Ms. on file, Department of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History, New York.Google Scholar
Hyslop, J. 1976 An Archaeological Investigation of the Lupaca Kingdom and its Origins. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Anthropology, Columbia University, New York.Google Scholar
Hyslop, J. 1990 Inka Settlement Planning. University of Texas Press, Austin.Google Scholar
Isbell, W. 1987 State Origins in the Ayacucho Valley, Central Highlands, Peru. In The Origins and Development of the Andean State, edited by J. Haas, S. Pozorski, and T. Pozorski, pp. 83–90. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Isbell, W. 1991 Huari Administration and the Orthogonal Cellular Architecture Horizon. In Huari Administrative Structure: Prehistoric Monumental Architecture and State Government, edited by W. Isbell and G. McEwan, pp. 293–316. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Isbell, W., and Schreiber, K. J. 1978 Was Huari a State? American Antiquity 43:372–389.Google Scholar
Isbell, W., Brewster-Wray, C., and Spickard, L. 1991 Architecture and Spatial Organization at Huari. In Huari Administrative Structure: Prehistoric Monumental Architecture and State Government, edited by W. Isbell and G. McEwan, pp. 19–54. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Ishida, E. 1960 Andes, The Report of the University of Tokyo Scientific Expedition to the Andes, 1958. University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo.Google Scholar
Keatinge, W., and Conrad, G. 1983 Imperialist Expansion in Peruvian Prehistory: Chimu Administration of a Conquered Territory. Journal of Field Archaeology 10:255–283.Google Scholar
Kolata, A. 1983 The South Andes. In Ancient South Americans, edited by J. Jennings, pp. 241–285.Google Scholar
Freeman, San Francisco. 1986 The Agricultural Foundations of the Tiwanaku State: A View from the Heartland. American Antiquity 51:748–762.Google Scholar
Freeman, San Francisco 1991 Sacred Mountain, Urban Enceinte: Cosmogony and the Reproduction of Tiwanaku Urban Form. Paper presented at the 56th Annual Meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, New Orleans.Google Scholar
Lumbreras, L. 1974 Los reinos post-Tiwanaku en el área altiplánico. Revista del Museo Nacional XL:55–85. Lima.Google Scholar
Lyncli, T. F. 1983 Camelid Pastoralism and the Emergence of Tiwanaku Civilization in the South-Central Andes. World Archaeology 15:1–14.Google Scholar
McEwan, G. 1990 Some Formal Correspondences Between the Imperial Architecture of the Wari and Chimu Cultures of Ancient Peru. Latin American Antiquity 1:97–116.Google Scholar
Manzanilla, L. 1992 Akapana: Una pirámide en el centro del mundo. Instituto de Investigaciones Antropológicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, D.F. Google Scholar
Manzanilla, L., and Woodard, E. 1990 Restos humanos asociados a la pirámide de Akapana (Tiwanaku, Bolivia). Latin American Antiquity 1:133–149.Google Scholar
Marchbanks, M. 1991 Trace Element Analysis of Ceramics from Tiwanaku. Paper presented at the 19th Annual Midwest Conference on Andean and Amazonian Archaeology, Bloomington, Indiana.Google Scholar
Morris, C. 1982 The Infrastructure of Inka Control in the Peruvian Central Highlands. In The Inca and Aztec States, 1400–1800, edited by G. Collier, R. Rosaldo, and J. Wirth, pp. 153–172. Academic Press, New York.Google Scholar
Morris, C, and Thompson, D. 1985 Huanaco Pampa–An Inca City and Its Hinterland. Thames and Hudson, London.Google Scholar
Moseley, M. E., Feldman, R. A., Goldstein, P., and L. Watanabe, M. 1991 Colonies and Conquest: Tiahuanaco and Huari in Moquegua. In Huari Administrative Structure: Prehistoric Monumental Architecture and State Government, edited by W. Isbell and G. McEwan, pp. 121–140. Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Mujica, E. 1985 Altiplano-Coast Relationships in the South Central Andes: From Indirect to Direct Complementarity. In Andean Ecology and Civilization, edited by S. Masuda, I. Shimada, and C. Morris, pp. 103–140. University of Tokyo Press, Tokyo.Google Scholar
Mujica, E., Rivera D., M. and Lynch, T. F. 1983 Proyecto de estudio sobre la complementaridad económica Tiwanaku en los valles occidentales del centro-sur andino. Revista Chungará 11:85–109. Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica.Google Scholar
Muñoz Ovalle, I. 1983 El poblamiento aldeano en el valle de Azapa y su vinculación con Tiwanaku (Arica - Chile). In Asentamientos aldeanos en los valles costeros de Arica, pp. 43–93. Documentos de Trabajo No. 3. Instituto de Antropología y Arqueología, Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica.Google Scholar
Murra, J. 1968 An Aymara Kingdom in 1567. Ethnohistory 15:115–511.Google Scholar
Murra, J. 1972 El “control vertical” de un máximo de pisos ecológicos en la economía de las sociedades andinas. In Visita de la provincia de Leon de Huanuco en 1562, edited by J. Murra, pp. 427–476. Documentos para la Historia y Etnología de Huanuco y la Selva Central No. 2. Universidad Nacional Hermilio Valdizan, Huánuco.Google Scholar
Oakland, A. 1986 Tiwanaku Textile Style from the South Central Andes, Bolivia and North Chile. Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Art History, University of Texas, Austin.Google Scholar
Orellana, M. 1985 Relaciónes culturales entre Tiwanaku y San Pedro de Atacama. In La problemática Tiwanaku Huari en el contexto panandino del desarrollo cultural, edited by M. A. Rivera, pp. 247–258. Diálogo Andino No. 4. Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica.Google Scholar
Parsons, J. R. 1968 An Estimate of Size and Population for Middle Horizon Tiahuanaco, Bolivia. American Antiquity 33:243–245.Google Scholar
Patterson, T., and Gailey, C. W. 1987 Power Relations and State Formation. In Power Relations and State Formation, edited by T. Patterson and C. Gailey, pp. 1–27. American Anthropological Association, Washington, D.C. Google Scholar
Paynter, R. 1989 The Archaeology of Equality and Inequality. Annual Review of Anthropology 18:369–399.Google Scholar
Piatt, T. 1980 Espejos y maiz: El concepto de Yanantin entre los macha de Bolivia. In Parentesco y matrimonio en los Andes, edited by E. Mayer and R. Bolton, pp. 139–182. Universidad la Católica, Lima.Google Scholar
Ponce Sanginés, C. 1969 Tiwanaku: Descripción sumaria del templete semisubterráneo. Publicatión No. 20. Academia National de Ciencias de Bolivia, La Paz.Google Scholar
Ponce Sanginés, C. 1972 Tiwanaku: Espacio, tiempo y cultura. Publicatión No. 30. Academia National de Ciencias de Bolivia, La Paz.Google Scholar
Ponce Sanginés, C. 1989 Arqueología de Lukurmata, vol. 1. INAR, La Paz.Google Scholar
Ponce Sanginés, C, and Mogrovejo Terrazas, G. 1970 Acerca de la procedencia del material lítico de los monumentos de Tiwanaku. Publication No. 21. Academia Nacional de Ciencias de Bolivia, La Paz.Google Scholar
Portugal, M. 1941 Las ruinas de Jesus de Machaca. Revista Geográfica Americana XVI:291–300. Buenos Aires.Google Scholar
Posnansky, A. 1934 Los urus o uchumi. In Adas y Trabajos Científlcos del XXV Congreso Internacional de Americanistas, La Plata, 1932, pp. 235–300. Buenos Aires.Google Scholar
Posnansky, A. 1945 Tihuanacu–The Cradle of American Man, vols. I and II. American Museum of Natural History, New York.Google Scholar
Posnansky, A. 1957 Tihuanacu—The Cradle of American Man, vols. III and IV. Ministerio de Educatión, La Paz.Google Scholar
Reinhard, J. 1985 Chavín and Tiahuanaco: A New Look at Two Andean Ceremonial Centers. National Geographic Research 1:395–422.Google Scholar
Reinhard, J. 1990 Tiahuanaco, Sacred Center of the Andes. In The Cultural Guide of Bolivia, edited by Peter McFarren, pp. 151–181. Fundación Quipus, La Paz.Google Scholar
Rivera Diaz, M. 1985 Alto Ramírez y Tiwanaku, un caso de interpretación simbólica a través de datos arqueológicos en el área de los valles occidentales, sur del Perú y norte de Chile. In La problemática Tiwanaku Huari en el contexto panandino del desarrollo cultural, edited by M. A. Rivera, pp. 39–58. Diálogo Andino No. 4. Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica.Google Scholar
Rivera Sundt, O. 1989 Resultados de la excavatión en el centro ceremonial de Lukurmata. In Arqueología de Lukurmata, vol. 2, edited by A. Kolata, pp. 59–89. INAR, La Paz.Google Scholar
Rowe, J. H., and Donahue, J. 1975 The Donahue Discovery. An Ancient Stela Found Near Have, Puno, Peru. Ñawpa Pacha 13:35–44.Google Scholar
Rydén, S. 1947 Archaeological Researches in the Highlands of Bolivia. Elanders Boktryckeri Aktiebolag, Göteborg.Google Scholar
Rydén, S. 1957 Andean Excavations, vol. I. Ethnographical Museum of Sweden, Stockholm.Google Scholar
Rydén, S. 1959 Andean Excavations, vol. II. Ethnographical Museum of Sweden, Stockholm.Google Scholar
Schreiber, K. 1987 From State to Empire: The Expansion of Wari Outside the Ayacucho Basin. In The Origins and Development of the Andean State, edited by J. Haas, S. Pozorski, and T. Pozorski, pp. 91–96. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.Google Scholar
Spencer, C. S. 1990 On the Tempo and Mode of State Formation: Neoevolutionism Reconsidered. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 9:1–30.Google Scholar
Stanish, C. 1991 Archaeological Survey in the Juli-Pomata Region of the Titicaca Basin, Peru. Field Museum of Natural History. Preliminary report submitted to the National Science Foundation, Anthropology Division, Washington, D.C. Copies available from C. Stanish, Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago.Google Scholar
Stuiver, M., and Pearson, G. W. 1986 High-Precision Calibration of the Radiocarbon Time Scale, AD 1950-500 BC. Radiocarbon 28:805–838.Google Scholar
Tarrago, M. N. 1977 Relaciónes prehispánicas entre San Pedro de Atacama (norte de Chile) y regiones aledanas: La quebrada de Humahuaca. Estudios Atacameños 5:50–63. San Pedro de Atacama.Google Scholar
Thomas, C, Benavente, M. A., and Massone, C. 1985 Algunos efectos de Tiwanaku en la cultura de San Pedro de Atacama. In La problemática Tiwanaku Huari en el contexto panandino del desarrollo cultural, edited by M. A. Rivera, pp. 259–276. Diálogo Andino No. 4. Universidad de Tarapacá.Google Scholar
Torres, C. 1985 Estilo y iconografía Tiwanaku en la cultura de San Pedro de Atacama. In La problemática Tiwanaku Huari en el contexto panandino del desarrollo cultural, edited by M. A. Rivera, pp. 247–259. Diálogo Andino No. 4. Universidad de Tarapacá, Arica.Google Scholar
Townsend, R. 1982 Pyramid and Sacred Mountain. In Ethnoastronomy and Archaeoastronomy in the American Tropics, edited by A. Aveni and G. Urton, pp. 37–62. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 385. New York Academy of Sciences, New York.Google Scholar
Wallace, D. 1957 The Tiahuanaco Horizon Styles in the Peruvian and Bolivian Highlands. Unpublished Ph.D dissertation, Department of Anthropology, University of California, Berkeley.Google Scholar
Wassen, S. H. 1972 A Medicine-Man’s Implements and Plants in a Tiahuanacoid Tomb in Highland Bolivia. Etnologiska Studier 32:8–114. Göteborg.Google Scholar
Wright, H. T., and Johnson, G. A. 1975 Population, Exchange and Early State Formation in Southwestern Iran. American Anthropologist 77:267–289.CrossRefGoogle Scholar