Abstract
We evaluated progress towards animal biodiversity research in Georgia, a key area in the Caucasus biodiversity hotspot. By reviewing recently (1990–2018) published articles in all areas of animal diversity research, we unmasked the trends in biodiversity inventory, ecological and biogeographical studies, and conservation issues in Georgia. We concluded that species inventory and biodiversity research in Georgia has significantly increased during the last ten years, however the rate and extent of investigation is far from satisfactory. Major gaps remain in all branches of animal diversity research in Georgia, and consequently existing knowledge is inadequate to address modern challenges related to species and ecosystem conservation. We urge local governmental authorities and international scientific societies to support development of stronger research facilities and cultivate interest in biodiversity inventory and research in Georgia as an important step towards maintaining globally important biodiversity in the Caucasus.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Amano T, Lamming JDL, Sutherland WJ (2016) Spatial gaps in global biodiversity information and the role of citizen science. BioScience 66:393–400. https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biw022
Antić D, Makarov SE (2016) The Caucasus as a major hotspot of biodiversity: evidence from the millipede family Anthroleucosomatidae (Diplopoda, Chordeumatida). Zootaxa 4211:1–205. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4211.1.1
Arbeláez-Cortés E (2013) Knowledge of Colombian biodiversity: published and indexed. Biodivers Conserv 22:2875–2906. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-013-0560-y
Aslan EG, Mumladze L, Japoshvili G (2017) List of leaf beetles (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) from Lagodekhi reserve with new records for Transcaucasia and Georgia. Zootaxa 4277:86–98. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4277.1.6
Barjadze S, Baquero E, Soto-Adames FN et al (2016) New diagnosis for species of Plutomurus Yosii (Collembola, Tomoceridae), with descriptions of two new species from Georgian caves. Zootaxa 4126:77–96. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4126.1.3
Barjadze S, Murvanidze M, Arabuli T et al (2015) Annotated list of invertebrates of the Georgian karst caves. Georgian Academic Book, Tbilisi
Battiston R, Massa B (2008) The mantids of Caucasus. Acts of the roveretan academy of agiati. Class of Human Sciences, Letters and Arts 258(VIIIB):5-28
Beilschmidt C, Drönner J, Mattig M et al (2017) VAT: a scientific toolbox for interactive Geodata exploration. Datenbank-Spektrum 17:233–243. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13222-017-0266-5
Bleyhl B, Baumann M, Griffiths P et al (2017) Assessing landscape connectivity for large mammals in the Caucasus using Landsat 8 seasonal image composites. Remote Sens Environ 193:193–203. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rse.2017.03.001
Bonney R, Shirk JL, Phillips TB et al (2014) Next steps for citizen science. Science 343:1436–1437. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1251554
Bruford MW, Brummitt N, Butchart SHM et al (2013) Essential biodiversity variables. Science 339:277–278. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1229931
Cardoso P, Erwin TL, Borges PA et al (2011) The seven impediments in invertebrate conservation and how to overcome them. Biol Conserv 144:2647–2655. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2011.07.024
Caucasian Land Snails (2012–2018) Universitat Hamburg. http://www.caucasus-snails.uni-hamburg.de. Accessed 18 Dec 2017 [Temporarily unavailable]
CEPF (2018) The Biodiversity Hotspots. https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots. Accessed 19 Dec 2018
Chaladze G (2012) Climate-based model of spatial pattern of the species richness of ants in Georgia. J Insect Conserv 16:791–800. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10841-012-9464-5
Chaladze G, Otto S, Tramp S (2014) A spider diversity model for the Caucasus Ecoregion. J Insect Conserv 18:407–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10841-014-9649-1
Davtyan E (2014) The role of infrastructure in international relations: the case of South Caucasus. Int J Soc Sci 3:22–38
Dickinson JL, Shirk J, Bonter D et al (2012) The current state of citizen science as a tool for ecological research and public engagement. Front Ecol Evol 10:291–297. https://doi.org/10.1890/110236
Dobosz R, Japoshvili G, Krivokhatsky V et al (2018) Contributions to the knowledge of neuropterid insects (Neuropterida: Raphidioptera, Neuroptera) of Georgia (Sakartvelo). Part II. Ann Up Siles Mus (Ent) 26:1–20. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1147632
Edwards PJ, Abivardi C (1998) The value of biodiversity: where ecology and economy blend. Biol Conserv 83:239–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0006-3207(97)00141-9
Eliava I, Cholokava A, Kvavadze E et al (2007) New data on animal biodiversity of Georgia. Bull Geo Nat Acad Sci 175:115–119
Evsyukov A, Golovatch S, Reip HS (2016) The millipede genus Strongylosoma in the Caucasus (Diplopoda: Polydesmida, Paradoxosomatidae). Acta Soc Zool Bohem 80:7–16
Fleishman E, Betrus CJ, Blair RB et al (2002) Nestedness analysis and conservation planning: the importance of place, environment, and life history across taxonomic groups. Oecologia 133:78–89. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00442-002-1003-8
Gabelaia M, Murtskhvaladze M, Tarkhnishvili D (2015) Phylogeography and morphological variation in a narrowly distributed Caucasian rock lizard, Darevskia mixta. Amphib Reptil 36:45–54. https://doi.org/10.1163/15685381-00002975
Gabelashvili S, Bikashvili A, Shubitidze Z et al (2016) Family level diversity and distribution of macroinvertebrates of Madatapa, Khanchali and Bughdasheni lakes in javakheti plateau (South Georgia). Proc Inst Zool 25:117–128
Gavashelishvili A (2009) GIS-based habitat modeling of mountain ungulate species in the Caucasus hotspot. In: Zazanashvili N, Mallon D (eds) Status and protection of globally threatened species in the Caucasus. Contour Ltd, Tbilisi, pp 74–82
Golovatch S, Evsyukov A, Reip H (2016) The millipede family Polydesmidae in the Caucasus (Diplopoda: Polydesmida). Zootaxa 4085:1–51. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4085.1.1
Golovatch S, Evsyukov A, Reip HS (2015) Colobognatha millipedes in the Caucasus (Diplopoda: Polyzoniida, Platydesmida, Siphonocryptida). Zootaxa 3972:250–266. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.3972.2.6
Groom MJ, Meffe GK, Carroll CR (2005) Principles of conservation biology, 3rd edn. Sinauer Assoiates, Sunderland
Hausdorf B (2001) A systematic revision of Circassina from the western Caucasus region (Gastropoda: Hygromiidae). J Molluscan Stud 67:425–446. https://doi.org/10.1093/mollus/67.4.425
Humphries CJ, Williams PH, Vane-Wright RI (1995) Measuring biodiversity value for conservation. Annu Rev Ecol Evol 26:93–111. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.26.110195.000521
Japoshvili B, Bozhadze M, Gioshvili M (2016a) A review of benthic fauna biodiversity in Georgia. Ann Agrar Sci 14:7–10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aasci.2016.02.002
Japoshvili B, Mumladze L, Küçük F (2013) Invasive Carassius carp in Georgia: current state of knowledge and future perspectives. Curr Zool 59:732–739. https://doi.org/10.1093/czoolo/59.6.732
Japoshvili G (2017) New records of Encyrtids (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Encyrtidae) from Georgia, with description of seven new species. J Asia Pac Entomol 20:866–877. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aspen.2017.06.006
Japoshvili G, Kostjukov V, Kosheleva O (2016b) New record of Tamarixia (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) from transcaucasia with some taxonomic and biogeographical notes. J Entomol Res Soc 18:113–120
Japoshvili G, Mumladze L (2018) New species and new records of Aphelinus Dalman (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea: Aphelinidae) from Lagodekhi reserve (Sakartvelo - Georgia), with diversity and distribution along an elevational gradient. Turk J Zool 43:192–202. https://doi.org/10.3906/zoo-1802-3
Japoshvili G, Salakaia M, Kirkitadze G et al (2017) List of encyrtids (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae) from subalpine and alpine zones of Lagodekhi protected areas with new records from Georgia and Transcaucasia. Turk J Zool 41:342–344. https://doi.org/10.3906/zoo-1601-67
Kopaliani N, Shakarashvili M, Gurielidze Z et al (2014) Gene flow between wolf and shepherd dog populations in Georgia (Caucasus). J Hered 105:345–353. https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/esu014
Kostjukov VV, Japoshvili G (2016) First record of Murcia-group of the genus Tetrastichus (Hymenoptera, Eulophidae) from Transcaucasia. In: Naditka VD (ed) Biological plant protection as the basis of ecosystem stabilization, issue 8. Krasnodar, pp 162–165
Kotze DJ, Samways MJ (1999) Support for the multi-taxa approach in biodiversity assessment, as shown by epigaeic invertebrates in an Afromontane forest archipelago. J Insect Conserv 3:125–143. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1009660601372
Kuljanishvili T, Mumladze L, Kalous L et al (2018) Fish species composition, sex ratio and growth parameters in Saghamo Lake (southern Georgia). Biologia 73:93–100. https://doi.org/10.2478/s11756-018-0012-y
Mancheno C, Nakhutsrishvili G, Zazanashvili N (2013) A perspective on ecological corridor for maintaining healthy ecological processes in the Caucasus. 5th symposium for research in protected areas. 10 to 12 June 2013. Mittersil 5:523–526
Martin LJ, Blossey B, Ellis E (2012) Mapping where ecologists work: biases in the global distribution of terrestrial ecological observations. Front Ecol Environ 10:195–201. https://doi.org/10.1890/110154
McGill BJ, Enquist BJ, Weiher E et al (2006) Rebuilding community ecology from functional traits. Trends Ecol Evol 21:178–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2006.02.002
Mitchell LA (2009) Compromising democracy: state building in Saakashvili's Georgia. Centr Asian Surv 28:171–183. https://doi.org/10.1080/02634930903034864
Mittermeier RA, Turner WR, Larsen FW et al (2011) Global biodiversity conservation: the critical role of hotspots. In: Zachos F, Habel J (eds) Biodiversity hotspots. Springer, Berlin, pp 3–22. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-20992-5_1
Mumladze L (2015) Species of the genus Helix (Mollusca, Gastropoda) in Georgia. Proc Inst Zool 24:148–157
Mumladze L, Asanidze Z, Walther F et al (2017a) Beyond elevation: testing the climatic variability hypothesis vs. Rapoport’s rule in vascular plant and snail species in the Caucasus. Biol J Linn Soc 121:753–763. https://doi.org/10.1093/biolinnean/blx027
Mumladze L, Cameron R, Pokryszko B (2014) Endemic land molluscs in Georgia (Caucasus): how well are they protected by existing reserves and national parks? J Molluscan Stud 80:67–73. https://doi.org/10.1093/mollus/eyt047
Mumladze L, Murvanidze M, Behan-Pelletier V (2013a) Compositional patterns in Holarcticpeat bog inhabiting oribatid mite (Acari: Oribatida) communities. Pedobiologia 56:41–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pedobi.2012.10.001
Mumladze L, Murvanidze M, Maraun M (2017b) Patterns of oribatid mite species diversity: testing the effects of elevation, area and sampling effort. Exp Appl Acarol 72:245–262. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10493-017-0153-7
Mumladze L, Murvanidze M, Maraun M et al (2015) Oribatid mite communities along an elevational gradient in Sairme gorge (Caucasus). Exp Appl Acarol 66:41–51. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10493-015-9893-4
Mumladze L, Tarkhnishvili D, Murtskhvaladze M (2013b) Systematics and evolutionary history of large endemic snails from the Caucasus (Helix buchii, and H. goderdziana) (Helicidae). Am Malacol Bull 31:225–234. https://doi.org/10.4003/006.031.0202
Mumladze L, Ulrich W, Asanidze Z et al (2017c) An inverse elevational species richness gradient of Caucasian vascular plants and Encyrtidae (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea). Écoscience 24:75–79. https://doi.org/10.1080/11956860.2017.1324717
Murtskhvaladze M, Gavashelishvili A, Tarkhnishvili D (2010) Geographic and genetic boundaries of brown bear (Ursus arctos) population in the Caucasus. Mol Ecol 19:1829–1841. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2010.04610.x
Murvanidze M, Darejanashvili S (2000) Checklist of oribatid mites (Acari, Oribatei) of Georgia. Proc Inst Zool 20:119–138
Murvanidze M, Kvavadze E, Mumladze L et al (2011) Comparison of earthworms (Lumbricidae) and Oribatid mite (Acari, Oribatida) communities in natural and urban ecosystems. Vestn Zool 45:e16–e24. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10058-011-0021-6
Murvanidze M, Mumladze L (2014) Oribatid mite (Acari: Oribatida) diversity in different forest stands of Borjom-Kharagauli National Park (Georgia). Persian J Acarol 3:257–276 https://doi.org/10.22073/pja.v3i4.10169
Murvanidze M, Mumladze L (2016) Annotated checklist of Georgian oribatid mites. Zootaxa 4089:1–81. https://doi.org/10.11646/zootaxa.4089.1.1
Murvanidze M, Mumladze L, Arabuli T et al (2016) Oribatida diversity in different microhabitats of Mtirala national park. J Acarol Soc Japan 25:35–49. https://doi.org/10.2300/acari.25.Suppl_35
Myers N, Mittermeier RA, Mittermeier CG et al (2000) Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403:853–858. https://doi.org/10.1038/35002501
NBSAP (2014) National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan of Georgia - 2014-2020. pp 105. https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/ge/ge-nbsap-v2-en.pdf. Accessed 18 Apr 2019
Neiber MT, Walther F, Hausdorf B (2018) Phylogeny and reclassification of the Caucasigenini radiation from the Caucasus region (Gastropoda, Hygromiidae). Zool Scr 47:54–62. https://doi.org/10.1111/zsc.12259
Ninua L, Tarkhnishvili D, Gvazava E (2018) Phylogeography and taxonomic status of trout and salmon from the Ponto-Caspian drainages, with inferences on European Brown trout evolution and taxonomy. Ecol Evol 8:2645–2658. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.3884
Otto S (2014) Caucasian spiders - a faunistic database on the spiders of the Caucasus, Version 14. http://caucasus-spidersinfo/. Accessed 12 Feb 2018
Otto S, Japoshvili G (2018) The spiders (Arachnida: Araneae) of the Lagodekhi Reserve, Georgia: faunistic results of a transect study and an updated checklist. Arachnology 17:375–391. https://doi.org/10.13156/arac.2017.17.8.375
Padial JM, Miralles A, De la Riva I et al (2010) The integrative future of taxonomy. Front Zool 7:16. https://doi.org/10.1186/1742-9994-7-16
Pante E, Schoelinck C, Puillandre N (2014) From integrative taxonomy to species description: one step beyond. Syst Biol 64:152–160. https://doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/syu083
Papava V (1995) The Georgian economy: problems of reform. Eurasian Stud 2:52–62
Pilot M, Ḑabrowski MJ, Hayrapetyan V et al (2014) Genetic variability of the grey wolf Canis lupus in the Caucasus in comparison with Europe and the Middle East: distinct or intermediary population? PLoS One 9:e93828. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0093828
Pokryszko BM, Cameron RAD, Mumladze L et al (2011) Forest snail faunas from Georgian Transcaucasia: patterns of diversity in a Pleistocene refugium. Biol J Linn Soc 102:239–250. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.2010.01575.x
Riedel M, Diller E, Japoshvili G (2018) The Ichneumonid fauna (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) of Lagodekhi reserve, Sakartvelo (Georgia), with descriptions of four new species. Linz Biol Beitr 50(2):1447–1507
Rukhadze A (2015) Georgia’s Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity. pp 76. https://www.cbd.int/doc/world/ge/ge-nr-05-en.pdf. Accessed 12 Mar 2019
Schmeller DS, Julliard R, Bellingham PJ et al (2015) Towards a global terrestrial species monitoring program. J Nat Conserv 25:51–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jnc.2015.03.003
Schröter A, Seehausen M, Kunz B et al (2015) Update of the Odonata fauna of Georgia, southern Caucasus ecoregion. Odonatologica 44:279–342
Seehausen M, Schröter A, Mumladze L et al (2016) Additional Odonata records from Georgia, southern Caucasus ecoregion, with the first record of Ischnura fountaineae (Odonata: Coenagrionidae). Not Odonatol 8:266–283
Stork NE (1994) Inventories of biodiversity: more than a question of numbers. In: Forey PI, Humphries CJ, Vane-Wright RI (eds) Systematics and conservation evaluation. Clarendon Press, Oxford, pp 81–100
Taberlet P, Coissac E, Pompanon F et al (2012) Towards next-generation biodiversity assessment using DNA metabarcoding. Mol Ecol 21:2045–2050. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-294X.2012.05470.x
Tarkhnishvili D, Chaladze G (2013) Georgian biodiversity database. http://www.biodiversity-georgia.net/. Accessed 11 Mar 2018
Tarkhnishvili D, Gabelaia M, Mumladze L et al (2016) Mitochondrial phylogeny of the Darevskia saxicola complex: two highly deviant evolutionary lineages from the easternmost part of the range. Herpetol J 26:175–182
Tarkhnishvili D, Gavashelishvili A, Avaliani A et al (2010) Unisexual rock lizard might be outcompeting its bisexual progenitors in the Caucasus. Biol J Linn Soc 101:447–460. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.2010.01498.x
Tarkhnishvili D, Gavashelishvili A, Mumladze L (2012) Palaeoclimatic models help to understand current distribution of Caucasian forest species. Biol J Linn Soc 105:231–248. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1095-8312.2011.01788.x
Tarkhnishvili D, Murtskhvaladze M, Gavashelishvili A (2013) Speciation in Caucasian lizards: climatic dissimilarity of the habitats is more important than isolation time. Biol J Linn Soc 109:876–892. https://doi.org/10.1111/bij.12092
Thomsen PF, Willerslev E (2015) Environmental DNA–an emerging tool in conservation for monitoring past and present biodiversity. Biol Conserv 183:4–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2014.11.019
Voith J (2003) Grundlagen und Bilanzen zur Roten Liste gefährdeter Tiere Deutschlands. LfU Bavaria 116:11–24
Walther F, Neiber MT, Hausdorf B (2016) Systematic revision and molecular phylogeny of the land snail genus Fruticocampylaea (Gastropoda: Hygromiidae) from the Caucasus region. Syst Biodivers 2000:1–23. https://doi.org/10.1080/14772000.2015.1100691
Wetzel FT, Bingham HC, Groom Q et al (2018) Unlocking biodiversity data: prioritization and filling the gaps in biodiversity observation data in Europe. Biol Conserv 221:78–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2017.12.024
Woodley S, Bertzky B, Crawhall N (2012) Meeting Aichi target 11: what does success look like for protected area systems? Parks 18:23–37
Wright RG, Lemons J (1996) National Parks and protected areas: their role in environmental protection. Blackwell Science Ltd, Cambridge, UK
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Shota Rustaveli National Science Foundation under the grant #217086. This article is dedicated to the memory of our friend and colleague Javier Maldonado-Ocampo who’s efforts to document biodiversity in Colombia provided ideas for this article and inspiration for similar research in Georgia.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Additional information
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Electronic supplementary material
ESM 1
(XLSX 148 kb)
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Mumladze, L., Japoshvili, B. & Anderson, E.P. Faunal biodiversity research in the Republic of Georgia: a short review of trends, gaps, and needs in the Caucasus biodiversity hotspot. Biologia 75, 1385–1397 (2020). https://doi.org/10.2478/s11756-019-00398-6
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.2478/s11756-019-00398-6