Yields, Soil Health and Farm Profits under a Rice-Wheat System: Long-Term Effect of Fertilizers and Organic Manures Applied Alone and in Combination
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. The Experimental Site
2.2. Treatments and Crop Culture
2.3. Soil Sampling and Analysis
2.4. Soil Bulk Density
2.5. Economic Analysis
2.6. Statistical Analysis and Computations
3. Results
3.1. Effect on Rice and Wheat Yields
3.2. Yield Trends in Rice and Wheat
3.3. Effect on Soil Health
3.3.1. Soil Bulk Density
3.3.2. Soil OC Content
3.3.3. Soil Mineral N Content
3.3.4. Soil Olsen-P Content
3.3.5. Soil Exchangeable K Content
3.3.6. Soil Available S Content
3.3.7. Soil DTPA–Zn Content
3.4. Effect on Economics
4. Discussion
4.1. RWS Productivity
4.2. Soil Health
4.2.1. Bulk Density and Organic Carbon
4.2.2. Soil N, P and K Contents
4.2.3. Secondary and Micro-Nutrients
4.3. Economics of RWS
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Soil Profile-Depth (cm) | Bulk Density (Mgm−3) | pH | EC (dS m−1) | Organic Carbon (g kg−1) | NO3–N (mg kg−1) | NH4–N (mg kg−1) | Olsen Available P (mg kg−1) | Available K (mg kg−1) | Available S (mg kg−1) | DTPA–Zn (mg kg−1) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0–15 | 1.49 | 8.01 | 0.11 | 5.1 | 6.9 | 11.3 | 8.3 | 74.1 | 14.3 | 0.54 |
15–30 | 1.52 | 7.89 | 0.12 | 3.6 | 6.8 | 11.6 | 6.1 | 66.3 | 9.1 | 0.46 |
30–45 | 1.58 | - | - | - | 6.1 | 11.64 | - | - | - | - |
45–60 | 1.60 | - | - | - | 5.42 | 10.8 | - | - | - | - |
60–75 | 1.61 | - | - | - | 5.2 | 10.4 | - | - | - | - |
Treatment Code | Treatment Details | |
---|---|---|
Monsoon (Rice) | Winter (Wheat) | |
Control | No chemical fertilizer or organic manure | No chemical fertilizer or organic manure |
RDF | Recommended N, P and K through fertilizers | Recommended N, P and K through fertilizers |
IPNS | 75% of recommended N, P and K through fertilizers + 25% substitution of recommended N through FYM | Recommended N, P and K through fertilizers |
IPNS+C | 75% of recommended N, P and K through fertilizers + 25% substitution of recommended N through FYM + every third rice substituted with cow pea | Recommended N, P and K through fertilizers |
IPNS+B | 75% of recommended N, P and K through fertilizers + 25% substitution of recommended N through FYM + every third wheat substituted with berseem | Recommended N, P and K through fertilizers |
OF | 100% of recommended N, P and K through organic manures (FYM) | 100% of recommended N, P and K through organic manures (FYM) |
Particulars | Annual Yield Changes a | Initial Yield b (t ha−1) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
b-Value | t-Statistics | p-Value | R2-Value | ||
Rice | |||||
Control | −0.06 | −6.98 | *** | 0.83 | 1.84 |
RDF | 0.01 | −4.34 | *** | 0.07 | 4.62 |
IPNS | 0.07 | −3.72 | *** | 0.65 | 5.01 |
IPNS+B | 0.05 | −3.78 | *** | 0.58 | 4.99 |
OF | 0.09 | −5.05 | *** | 0.81 | 2.90 |
Wheat | |||||
Control | −0.06 | −7.11 | *** | 0.78 | 1.58 |
RDF | −0.05 | −4.85 | *** | 0.57 | 4.42 |
IPNS | 0.07 | −3.91 | *** | 0.72 | 4.54 |
IPNS+C | 0.08 | −4.04 | *** | 0.72 | 4.49 |
OF | 0.14 | −5.08 | *** | 0.91 | 2.33 |
Treatments | Rice Yield (t ha−1) | % Change | Wheat Yield (t ha−1) | % Change | RW System Yield (t ha−1) | % Change | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Initial Years a | Terminal Years b | Initial Years | Terminal Years | Initial Years | Terminal Years | ||||
Control | 2.01 c | 0.83 d | −58.7 | 1.81 d | 0.77 d | −57.5 | 3.82 c | 1.60 c | −58.1 |
RDF | 4.96 a | 4.88 b | −1.6 | 4.37 b | 3.57 c | −18.35 | 9.33 a | 8.45 b | −9.4 |
IPNS | 5.09 a | 6.13 a | 20.4 | 4.60 ab | 5.85 a | 27.2 | 9.69 a | 11.98 a | 23.6 |
IPNS+B | 5.13 a | 6.27 a | 22.2 | 4.65 a | 6.18 a | 32.9 | 9.78 a | 12.44 a | 27.2 |
IPNS+C | 5.09 a | 6.27 a | 23.2 | 4.59 ab | 6.14 a | 33.8 | 9.68 a | 12.41 a | 28.2 |
OF | 2.60 b | 4.23 c | 62.7 | 2.15 c | 4.48 b | 108.4 | 4.75 b | 8.71 b | 83.4 |
Treatment | 2002–2003 | 2007–2008 | 2012–2013 | 2017–2018 | Mean | 2002–2003 | 2007–2008 | 2012–2013 | 2017–2018 | Mean |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0–15 cm Depth | 15–30 cm Depth | |||||||||
Control | 4.7 cA | 4.3 cAB | 3.9 cB | 3.3 dC | 4.1 c | 3.0 cA | 2.8 bA | 2.8 eA | 2.6 dA | 2.8 d |
RDF | 5.2 bA | 5.1 bA | 5.3 bA | 5.4 cA | 5.3 b | 3.2 aA | 3.4 aA | 3.5 cA | 3.7 bcA | 3.5 c |
IPNS | 5.6 abB | 5.8 aAB | 6.0 aAB | 6.2 bA | 5.9 a | 3.6 aA | 4.0 aB | 4.2 dB | 4.4 cB | 4.1 b |
IPNS+B | 5.5 abC | 5.9 aBC | 6.2 aAB | 6.4 bA | 6.0 a | 3.9 b | 4.7 aB | 5.0 aA | 5.3 aAB | 4.7 a |
IPNS+C | 5.5 abB | 5.8 aB | 6.4 aA | 6.4 bA | 6.0 a | 4.0 a | 4.5 aB | 5.1 aA | 5.4 aA | 4.8 a |
OF | 5.8 aC | 6.4 aBC | 6.9 aB | 7.1 aA | 6.6 a | 3.3 c | 3.8 aA | 4.0 bcA | 4.2 bA | 3.8 bc |
Treatment | 2002–2003 | 2007–2008 | 2012–2013 | 2017–2018 | Mean | 2002–2003 | 2007–2008 | 2012–2013 | 2017–2018 | Mean |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0–15 cm Depth | 15–30 cm Depth | |||||||||
Control | 8.0 eA | 7.6 dAB | 7.1 eAB | 6.9 dB | 7.4 d | 5.6 cA | 4.9 eB | 4.9 dB | 3.9 eC | 4.8 eB |
RDF | 13.0 aD | 15.9 aC | 19.7 aB | 21.9 aA | 17.6 a | 6.3 bD | 8.5 aC | 10.9 aB | 13.6 aA | 9.8 aC |
IPNS | 11.7 bD | 13.9 bC | 15.9 bB | 17.7 bA | 14.8 b | 7.3 aC | 7.4 bC | 8.4 bB | 9.2 bA | 8.1 bB |
IPNS+B | 8.9 deD | 11.3 cC | 13.7 dB | 15.9 cA | 12.5 c | 5.3 cAB | 5.7 dA | 4.8 dBC | 4.7 dC | 5.1 deB |
IPNS+C | 10.0 cdD | 12.1 cC | 14.3 cdB | 16.0 cA | 13.1 c | 6.0 bcA | 6.0 cdA | 5.1 dB | 4.9 dB | 5.5 dA |
OF | 12.7 aD | 14.1 aC | 17.2 bcB | 18.2 bA | 15.6 b | 6.5 bAB | 6.4 cB | 6.9 cA | 6.8 cAB | 6.6 cAB |
Treatment | 2002–2003 | 2007–2008 | 2012–2013 | 2017–2018 | Mean | 2002–2003 | 2007–2008 | 2012–2013 | 2017–2018 | Mean |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0–15 cm Depth | 15–30 cm Depth | |||||||||
Control | 69.1 bA | 67.1 bA | 64.7 bA | 61.9 dA | 65.7 b | 64.7 bAB | 62.5 bA | 60.6 cAB | 58.1 cB | 61.5 b |
RDF | 70.5 bA | 65.2 bA | 61.2 bA | 58.9 dA | 64.0 b | 65.8 bA | 62.2 bAB | 59.9 cAB | 56.2 cB | 61.0 b |
IPNS | 83.0 aC | 91.3 aAB | 96.5 aAB | 106.4 bcA | 94.3 a | 69.9 abC | 76.0 aB | 79.3 bAB | 86.2 bA | 77.9 a |
IPNS+B | 82.3 aC | 92.0 aB | 98.2 aB | 104.5 abA | 94.3 a | 67.5 abC | 75.9 aB | 79.9 abB | 85.7 abA | 77.3 a |
IPNS+C | 82.4 aB | 92.6 aA | 96.7 aA | 101.4 cA | 93.3 a | 69.5 abB | 76.8 aA | 80.6 abA | 84.0 bA | 77.7 a |
OF | 87.3 aC | 94.6 aB | 99.4 aB | 109.6 aA | 97.7 a | 72.0 aC | 79.8 aB | 84.7 aB | 90.4 aA | 81.7 a |
Treatment | 2002–2003 | 2007–2008 | 2012–2013 | 2017–2018 | Mean | 2002–2003 | 2007–2008 | 2012–2013 | 2017–2018 | Mean |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0–15 cm Depth | 15–30 cm Depth | |||||||||
Control | 11.0 dA | 10.4 eAB | 9.6 dBC | 8.7 dC | 9.9 d | 8.1 cA | 7.8 dA | 7.9 dA | 7.5 dA | 7.8 d |
RDF | 10.9 dA | 9.8 eAB | 9.1 dBC | 8.3 dC | 9.5 d | 7.7 cA | 7.1 dAB | 6.9 dB | 6.3 dB | 7.0 d |
IPNS | 16.0 bD | 19.2 bA | 22.9 bB | 25.2 bA | 20.8 b | 10.3 bD | 12.9 abC | 14.0 bB | 15.4 bA | 13.2 b |
IPNS+B | 14.5 cD | 16.4 dA | 19.7 cB | 22.7 cA | 18.3 c | 9.9 bD | 11.6 cC | 12.6 cB | 14.3 cA | 12.1 c |
IPNS+C | 15.1 bcC | 17.8 B | 22.0 bA | 23.1 cA | 19.5 c | 10.4 bD | 12.1 bcC | 13.5 bB | 14.6 bcA | 12.7 bc |
OF | 18.2 aD | 22.1 aC | 28.3 aB | 30.6 aA | 24.8 a | 11.5 aD | 13.7 aC | 15.0 aB | 17.2 aA | 14.4 a |
Treatment | 2002–2003 | 2007–2008 | 2012–2013 | 2017–2018 | Mean | 2002–2003 | 2007–2008 | 2012–2013 | 2017–2018 | Mean |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0–15 cm Depth | 15–30 cm Depth | |||||||||
Control | 0.48 bA | 0.43 bAB | 0.40 cBC | 0.37 cC | 0.42 b | 0.41 bA | 0.39 bA | 0.37 cAB | 0.34 bB | 0.38 b |
RDF | 0.67 aB | 0.70 aB | 0.83 abA | 0.87 bA | 0.77 a | 0.51 aB | 0.54 aB | 0.60 abA | 0.62 aA | 0.57 a |
IPNS | 0.65 aB | 0.70 aB | 0.80 bA | 0.84 bA | 0.75 a | 0.48 aB | 0.51 aB | 0.56 bA | 0.60 aA | 0.54 a |
IPNS+B | 0.67 aD | 0.73 aC | 0.87 aB | 0.93 aA | 0.80 a | 0.49 aB | 0.53 aB | 0.58 abA | 0.61 aA | 0.55 a |
IPNS+C | 0.69 aB | 0.72 aB | 0.88 aA | 0.88 abA | 0.79 a | 0.50 aC | 0.55 aB | 0.61 aA | 0.64 aA | 0.57 a |
OF | 0.51 bA | 0.44 bB | 0.40 cBC | 0.36 cC | 0.43 bB | 0.43 bA | 0.40 bA | 0.35 cB | 0.34 bB | 0.38 b |
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Singh, V.K.; Dwivedi, B.S.; Mishra, R.P.; Shukla, A.K.; Timsina, J.; Upadhyay, P.K.; Shekhawat, K.; Majumdar, K.; Panwar, A.S. Yields, Soil Health and Farm Profits under a Rice-Wheat System: Long-Term Effect of Fertilizers and Organic Manures Applied Alone and in Combination. Agronomy 2019, 9, 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9010001
Singh VK, Dwivedi BS, Mishra RP, Shukla AK, Timsina J, Upadhyay PK, Shekhawat K, Majumdar K, Panwar AS. Yields, Soil Health and Farm Profits under a Rice-Wheat System: Long-Term Effect of Fertilizers and Organic Manures Applied Alone and in Combination. Agronomy. 2019; 9(1):1. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9010001
Chicago/Turabian StyleSingh, Vinod K., Brahma S. Dwivedi, Rajendra P. Mishra, Arvind K. Shukla, Jagadish Timsina, Pravin K. Upadhyay, Kapila Shekhawat, Kaushik Majumdar, and Azad S. Panwar. 2019. "Yields, Soil Health and Farm Profits under a Rice-Wheat System: Long-Term Effect of Fertilizers and Organic Manures Applied Alone and in Combination" Agronomy 9, no. 1: 1. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy9010001