Vector-Borne Viral Diseases as a Current Threat for Human and Animal Health—One Health Perspective
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Main Arboviruses of Humans and Animals
3. Transmission of Arboviruses
3.1. Horizontal Transmission
3.2. Vertical Transmission
4. Main Arthropod Vectors of Arboviruses
4.1. Mosquitoes
4.2. Ticks
4.3. Biting Midges (Culicoides)
4.4. Sandflies
5. Ecology of Arboviral Infections
6. Preventive Measures for Controlling Vector-Borne Viral Diseases
6.1. Environmental Prevention
6.2. Mechanical Prevention
6.3. Chemical Prevention
6.4. Biological Prevention
6.5. Genetic Prevention
7. Vaccines
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Virus | Vector | Main Hosts | Geographic Distribution | Scale Estimation | Symptoms | References |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Family: Flaviviridae | ||||||
Dengue virus (DENV) | Mosquitoes | Monkeys, human | South and Central America, South Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, south Asia, Oceania | 1,600,000 human cases (2021) | fever, frontal headache, myalgias and frequently arthralgias, nausea, vomiting and rash, vascular permeability, leakage, hypovolemia, shock | [12,33] |
Yellow fever virus (YFV) | Mosquitoes | Primates, human | Africa central, central and northern part of South America | 109,000 serious human cases (50,000 deaths in 2018) | fever, chills, generalized malaise, headache, red conjunctivae, photophobia, low back pain, myalgia, anorexia, nausea, vomiting, hepatomegaly, and epigastric and hepatic tenderness upon palpation, nausea, vomiting, epigastric pain, jaundice, oliguria, and hemorrhagic manifestations | [13,34,35] |
Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) | Mosquitoes | Pigs, birds, horses, human | Japan, East Asia, Indian Peninsula, Oceania | 30–50,000 human cases/annually, 68,000 (2011) | cough, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and photophobia, followed by a reduced level of consciousness, dull, flat, mask-like facies with wide, unblinking eyes, tremor, generalized hypertonia, cogwheel rigidity and other abnormalities of movement, motor neuron signs, cerebellar signs and cranial nerve palsies | [12,36,37] |
Zika virus (ZIKV) | Mosquitoes | Apes, monkeys, human | North and South America, Pacific Asia, South and Central America | Central and North America—2725 human cases (2021) South America—18,318 human cases (2021) | fever, headache, rash, fetal abnormalities, headache, diffuse joint pain | [38,39] |
West Nile Virus (WNV) | Mosquitoes | Birds, horses, human | Africa, Europe, Middle East, North America, East Asia | USA—2695 human cases, 191 fatalities (2021) EU/EEA—139 human cases (2021) | fever, headache, back pain, myalgias and anorexia, eye pain, pharyngitis, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and abdominal pain can also occur | [12,40,41] |
Family: Togaviridae | ||||||
Chikungunya virus (CHIKV) | Mosquitoes | Primates, human | Both Americas, Africa, Asia, central and eastern Europe, Oceania | 225,000 human cases (2021) | fever, headache, prostration, conjunctival inflammation, myalgia, arthralgia, hemorrhagic signs, respiratory involvement, leukopenia, rash, lymphadenopathy, temp. may be diphasic | [33] |
Ross River virus (RRV) | Mosquitoes | Marsupials, horses, human | Australia, Papua New Guinea, Islands in the Pacific Ocean | The highest number of infections in 1979–1980—more than 50,000 human cases. Australia—5000 human cases/year (2006–2015) | fever, chills, headache and aches and pains in the muscles and joints, swollen, rash | [42] |
O’nyong nyong virus (ONNV) | Mosquitoes | Human, primates | Central, eastern and western Africa | No current data, 2 million human cases in East and West Africa (1959–1962) | fever, headache, prostration, myalgia, arthralgia, respiratory involvement, rash, lymphadenopathy | [43,44] |
Family: Phenuiviridae | ||||||
Rift Valley fever virus (RVFV) | Mosquitoes, sandflies, midges | Cattles, buffalos, sheep, goats, camels, human | Arabian Peninsula, all of Africa with the exception of Côte d’Ivoire and northern countries (found in Egypt) | 129 cases in humans and 109 in animals (2019) 3709 cases since 2000 Over 200,000 cases, including 598 fatalities in 1977–1978 | fever, headache, prostration, conjunctival inflammation, stiffness, myalgia, arthralgia, CNS signs (including encephalitis, hemorrhagic signs, lymphadenopathy, vomiting, central scotoma-detached retina | [17,45] |
Family: Peribunyaviridae | ||||||
California Encephalitis virus (CEV) | Mosquitoes | Human, rabbits, squirrels | California | About 68 human cases reported yearly | fever, headache, stiff neck, CNS signs (including encephalitis), CNS pleocytosis, and vomiting | [46,47] |
Ngari virus (NRIV) | Mosquitoes, ticks | human, sheep, goats | Central Africa | No current data | fever, cold, sweating, headache, vomiting, nausea, diarrhea | [48,49] |
Nyando virus (NDV) | Mosquitoes | Human | Central Africa | No current data | multiphasic fever, myalgia and vomiting | [50] |
Pongola virus (PGAV) | Mosquitoes | Human | South Africa | No current data | fever, headache, joint pains | [50] |
Schmallenberg virus (SBV) | Midges | Ruminants | Europe | No current data, 3444 infected herds (April 2012) | in cattle: fever, diarrhea, reduced milk yield, congenital malformation in newborn ruminants | [51] |
Akabane virus (AKAV) | Mosquitoes, midges | Cattle, sheep, goats | Eastern hemisphere, including parts of Asia, Africa, the Middle East and Australia | Seroprevalence in Turkey: 44.74% cattle, 22.90%—sheep,14.52%—goats (2015–2017) China: 21.3%—cattle, 12.0%—sheep or goats (2006–2015) | in animals: congenital defects, abortions, stillborns, tremors, ataxia, lameness, paralysis, nystagmus, opisthotonos and hypersensitivity | [49,50,52,53] |
Family: Reoviridae | ||||||
Bluetongue virus (BTV) | Midges, mosquitoes | Ruminants | Australia, North America, Africa, Middle East, Asia, Europe | EU—205 outbreaks (2021) | ruminants: fever, hyperaemia and congestion, leading to oedema mostly of the face, eyelids and ears, erosions of the mucous membranes, severe muscle degeneration, the lungs may show interalveolar hyperaemia | [20,23] |
Epizootic hemorrhagic disease virus (EHDV) | Midges, mosquitoes | white-tailed deer, antelopes | North and South America, Africa, Asia, Australia, Indian Ocean islands | No current data | in animals: fever, anorexia, respiratory distress, oedema, conjunctivae, swelling of the tongue, oral/nasal erosions | [23,54] |
African horse sickness virus (AHSV) | Midges | Horses, donkeys, mule, zebras | Sahara, Middle East, Turkey, southeast Asia | Outbreak in Pakistan and India (1959–1961)—more than 300,000 deaths. Outbreak in Thailand 2020 (610 infections, 568 deaths) | animals—fever, swelling of the supraorbital fossa, eyelids, facial tissues, neck, thorax, brisket and shoulders (subacute, oedematous or cardiac form), dyspnea, spasmodic coughing, dilated nostrils with frothy fluid oozing out (peracute, respiratory or pulmonary form) | [55,56] |
Family: Asfarviridae | ||||||
African Swine Fever (ASFV) | Ticks | Pigs, bushpigs, warthogs | Central and eastern Europe, Italy, Belgium, Russia, China, south and central Africa with Madagascar | Global: 3762 outbreaks—domestic pigs (1,004,347 cases), 9229 outbreaks—wild boar (28,533 cases) (2021) EU: 1871 outbreaks—domestic pigs, 12,150 outbreaks—wild boar (2021) | animals—high fever, loss of appetite, haemorrhages in the skin and internal organ | [23,57] |
Family: Rhabdoviridae | ||||||
Bovine ephemeral fever virus (BEFV) | Midges, mosquitoes | Bovine | Africa, Middle East, Australia, Asia | Seroprevalance in China: up to 81% (cattle from 26 of 28 provinces) | bovine: bi-phasic fever, salivation, lameness and muscle stiffness, general depression, muscle weakness, lameness and limp paralysis progressing to sternal recumbency | [32,58] |
Family: Orthomyxoviridae | ||||||
Thogoto virus (THOV) | Ticks | Human, cattle, camel, antibodies in sheep and goat | Africa, Iran, southern Europe | Spain, seroprevalance: humans—5% among individuals with a history of tick bites) Sheep—20% (2020) | febrile illness accompanied by neurological symptoms in humans; afebrile leucopenia in cattle, and fever and abortion in sheep | [59,60] |
Family: Poxviridae | ||||||
Lumpy skin disease virus (LSDV) | Mosquitoes, ticks | Cattle and wild ruminants | Africa, Middle East, Europe, Asia | Outbreaks: Iran—6, Iraq—8, Turkey—1294, Kazakhstan—1, Azerbaijan—16, Armenia—1, Russia—330 (2014–2016) | fever, inappetence, nasal discharge, salivation and lachrymation, enlarged lymph nodes, reduced milk production, loss of body weight, skin nodules on the neck, legs, tail, and back | [29] |
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Socha, W.; Kwasnik, M.; Larska, M.; Rola, J.; Rozek, W. Vector-Borne Viral Diseases as a Current Threat for Human and Animal Health—One Health Perspective. J. Clin. Med. 2022, 11, 3026. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11113026
Socha W, Kwasnik M, Larska M, Rola J, Rozek W. Vector-Borne Viral Diseases as a Current Threat for Human and Animal Health—One Health Perspective. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2022; 11(11):3026. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11113026
Chicago/Turabian StyleSocha, Wojciech, Malgorzata Kwasnik, Magdalena Larska, Jerzy Rola, and Wojciech Rozek. 2022. "Vector-Borne Viral Diseases as a Current Threat for Human and Animal Health—One Health Perspective" Journal of Clinical Medicine 11, no. 11: 3026. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm11113026