Seam Properties of Overlap Welding Strategies from Copper to Aluminum Using Green Laser Radiation for Battery Tab Connections in Electric Vehicles
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. State of the Art
2.1. Laser Beam Welding and Application of Spatial Power Modulation
2.2. Laser-Based Overlap Joining of Dissimilar Metals
2.3. Influence of Processing Wavelength—Application of Visible Laser Radiation
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Laser Beam Welding Setup
3.2. Overlap Welding Strategies
3.3. Experimental Design and Procedure
3.4. Electrical, Metallurgical and Mechanical Characterization
4. Results and Discussion
4.1. Evaluation of Weld Seam Cross-Sections—Influence of Process Parameters
4.1.1. Linear Stitched Weld
4.1.2. Circular Beam Oscillation
4.1.3. Vertical Eight Beam Oscillation
4.2. Electron Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) Analysis Results—Influence of Welding Strategy
4.3. Seam Surface Roughness Analysis
4.4. Vickers Microhardness Analysis of the Weld Seams
4.5. Tensile-Shear Strength Testing
4.6. Temperature Measurement in the Seam Adjacent Zone during Welding
4.7. Electrical Connection Resistance
4.8. Process Window Evaluation—Statistical Analysis of Parameter Variations
4.9. Discussion
4.10. Clamping Device with Integrated Sensor Technology
- A 3D-printed clamping top part with integrated metal inserts in the specimen direction and in areas where clamping force is induced into the part.
- An integrated gas inlet for supplying a protective gas (nitrogen) to the interaction zone of laser and material.
- Two horizontal toggle clamps with integrated load cell and sensor unit (Kipp K1463, Heinrich Kipp Werk GmbH, Sulz am Neckar, Germany) for the measurement and assurance of the required clamping force before the welding process is started.
- Two spring-loaded coaxial kelvin contacts (UWE electronic GmbH, Germany) with isolated inner and outer conductors for electrical resistance measurement (test length now 16 mm).
- Four type K spring -loaded thermocouples (brass, gold plated; UWE electronic GmbH, Unterhaching, Germany) to determine the temperature increase in the samples with spatial resolution near the welded area (all sensors were integrated in holes in 8 mm distance to the symmetry plane of the weld seam).
- A Si-photodiode PDA100A-EC (Thorlabs Inc., Newton, NJ, USA) mounted in the welding cabin and pointing to the laser interaction zone to sense the onset of laser emission for data recording using an Expert Key 200L (Delphin Technology AG, Bergisch Gladbach, Germany) data logger.
5. Conclusions
- Process parameter windows were identified for all three welding strategies, with the linear stitched weld showing the most stable results. It is noticeable that there must be a sufficient intensity to enable stable incoupling and interface area between the components.
- The weld seam shape, characterized by penetration depth and seam width was reproducibly reached with copper as the top layer. The process windows are large compared to infrared laser applications of this type and the geometrical properties of the weld seams can be precisely controlled by the process parameters laser power and feed rate (vF, f for oscillating strategies).
- Using beam oscillation, a discontinuous weld seam is formed in the cross-sectional direction, which is a combination of different degrees of intermixing. Due to the overlapping oscillation path, the local energy changes compared to the linear stitched weld and copper aluminum intermixing in the interaction zone differs significantly.
- The results of the test series show a different sensitivity of the oscillating welding strategies with regard to the temperatures in the seam adjacent zone since heat accumulation effects cause higher maximum temperatures close to the permissible limit when using the vertical eight oscillation strategy. Overall, no critical temperatures were detected in the seam adjacent area in this study.
- The deep penetration mode used favors the formation of sound, crack-free weld seams. Pores were found to be distributed over the entire joint area when higher line energies were applied compared to the reference parameters.
- Based on the findings, the occurrence of intermetallic phases was investigated. EDS analysis confirmed that intermetallic phases were distributed in the interconnection area of copper and aluminum in the form of layers in the weld. Hardness measurements confirmed the presence of these intermetallic phases (plausibly θ and η). In the case of the oscillating welding strategies, these were distributed over the entire fusion zone, while in the case of the linear stitched weld, a concentration was observed at the interface.
- Excellent mechanical properties were observed for the reference welding parameter sets defined for of all welding strategies, with tensile strengths similar to those obtained in the literature with near-infrared single-mode laser welding.
- A maximum mechanical resistance of 880 N was found. The failure of the joints was classified based on the fracture location. The weld seams were found to fail outside the fusion zone despite the presence of brittle intermetallic phases in the joint. A large plastic deformation of the aluminum sheet after fracture indicates a ductile weld seam behavior. Only for increased intermixing using the vertical eight beam oscillation, a fracture in the weld seam occurred.
- Based on the microstructural analysis and tensile-shear strength testing, it can be concluded that maximum shear strength is achieved in copper-aluminum overlap welds with low degree of intermixing and without the presence of large complex intermetallic structures in the weld seam.
- The electrical resistance is observed to be relatively stable and not significantly sensitive to process parameters. The measured values were comparable to those reported in the literature. The linear stitched welded samples performed slightly better, and a lower deviation was detected, with the lowest value of 42 μΩ. In addition, a correlation is found between the electrical resistance and the mechanical strength of the weld.
- Finally, a clamping device with integrated sensor technology (clamping force, resistance, temperature) for direct data acquisition before, during, and after the welding process close to the interaction zone was developed and tested.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Appendix B
PL in W | vF in mm/s | f in Hz | PL in W | vF in mm/s | f in Hz | PL in W | vF in mm/s | f in Hz | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
400 | 30 | 50 | 800 | 75 | 150 | 700 | 25 | 100 | ||
500 | 30 | 50 | 900 | 75 | 150 | 800 | 25 | 100 | ||
600 | 30 | 50 | 950 | 75 | 150 | 850 | 25 | 100 | ||
700 | 30 | 50 | 1000 | 75 | 150 | 900 | 25 | 100 | ||
800 | 30 | 50 | 1100 | 75 | 150 | 600 | 30 | 50 | ||
600 | 30 | 75 | 850 | 75 | 200 | 700 | 30 | 50 | ||
700 | 30 | 75 | 900 | 75 | 200 | 600 | 30 | 75 | ||
800 | 30 | 75 | 950 | 75 | 200 | 700 | 30 | 75 | ||
600 | 30 | 100 | 1000 | 75 | 200 | 800 | 30 | 75 | ||
700 | 30 | 100 | 800 | 100 | 100 | 900 | 30 | 75 | ||
800 | 30 | 100 | 900 | 100 | 100 | 800 | 50 | 50 | ||
600 | 50 | 50 | 1000 | 100 | 100 | 900 | 50 | 50 | ||
700 | 50 | 50 | 1100 | 100 | 100 | 1000 | 50 | 50 | ||
800 | 50 | 50 | 1200 | 100 | 100 | 1100 | 50 | 50 | ||
900 | 50 | 50 | 1100 | 100 | 150 | 900 | 50 | 100 | ||
700 | 50 | 75 | 1200 | 100 | 150 | 950 | 50 | 100 | ||
800 | 50 | 75 | 1300 | 100 | 150 | 1000 | 50 | 100 | ||
900 | 50 | 75 | 800 | 100 | 200 | 1100 | 50 | 100 | ||
1000 | 75 | 900 | 100 | 200 | 1000 | 75 | 100 | |||
700 | 50 | 100 | 1000 | 100 | 200 | 1100 | 75 | 100 | ||
800 | 50 | 100 | 1100 | 100 | 200 | 1200 | 75 | 100 | ||
900 | 50 | 100 | 1200 | 100 | 200 | 800 | 75 | 125 | ||
1000 | 50 | 100 | 1200 | 150 | 150 | 900 | 75 | 125 | ||
700 | 50 | 150 | 1300 | 150 | 150 | 1000 | 75 | 125 | ||
800 | 50 | 150 | 1400 | 150 | 150 | 900 | 100 | 100 | ||
900 | 50 | 150 | 1500 | 150 | 150 | 1000 | 100 | 100 | ||
1000 | 50 | 150 | 1600 | 150 | 150 | 1100 | 100 | 100 | ||
800 | 75 | 100 | 800 | 150 | 200 | 1200 | 100 | 100 | ||
900 | 75 | 100 | 1000 | 150 | 200 | 800 | 100 | 125 | ||
1000 | 75 | 100 | 1400 | 150 | 200 | 900 | 100 | 125 | ||
1100 | 75 | 100 | 1600 | 150 | 200 | 1000 | 100 | 125 | ||
1200 | 75 | 100 | 1800 | 150 | 200 | 1100 | 100 | 125 | ||
1200 | 100 | 125 | ||||||||
900 | 125 | 125 | ||||||||
1000 | 125 | 125 | ||||||||
1100 | 125 | 125 | ||||||||
1200 | 125 | 125 | ||||||||
1300 | 125 | 125 |
PL in W | vF in mm/s |
---|---|
1200 | 300 |
1300 | 300 |
1400 | 300 |
1500 | 300 |
1300 | 400 |
1400 | 400 |
1500 | 400 |
1600 | 400 |
1500 | 500 |
1600 | 500 |
1700 | 500 |
1800 | 500 |
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Phase | Chemical Composition | Cu Mass in % | Al Mass in % | Hardness in HV | Specific Resistivity in µΩ cm | ΔG in kJ mol−1 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Cu | Cu | 100 | 0 | 100 | 1.8 | - |
γ1 | Al4Cu9 | 80 | 20 | 1050 | 14.2 | −21.69 |
δ | Al2Cu3 | 78 | 22 | 180 | 13.4 | −20.67 |
ζ2 | Al3Cu4 | 75 | 25 | 624 | 12.2 | −20.64 |
η2 | AlCu | 70 | 30 | 648 | 11.4 | −19.92 |
Θ | Al2Cu | 55 | 45 | 413 | 8.0 | −13.05 |
Al | Al | 0 | 100 | 60 | 2.9 | - |
Dimension | Unit | Trumpf TruDisk 3022 |
---|---|---|
Wavelength (λ) | [nm] | 515 |
Laser power (Pmax) | [W] | 3000 |
Fiber diameter (dLLK) | [µm] | 200 |
Focal length collimator (fC) | [mm] | 150 |
Focal length optics (fF) | [mm] | 255 |
Focal diameter (dF, measured) | [µm] | 342.5 |
Diffraction factor (M2) | [-] | 46.1 |
Divergence angle (θ) | [mrad] | 88.2 |
Beam parameter product (BPP) | [mm∙mrad] | 7.55 |
Material/Element | Al | Zn | Mg | Mn | Cu | Si + Fe |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Al (AlN30) | 99.42 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.01 | 0.47 |
Cu (Cu, 2.5 µm Ni-layer) | - | - | - | - | 99.96 | - |
Identification | Welding Strategy | PL in W | vF in mm/s | f in Hz |
---|---|---|---|---|
#1 | Linear | 1400 | 400 | - |
#2 | Linear | 1600 | 500 | - |
#3 | O-oscillation | 900 | 50 | 50 |
#4 | O-oscillation | 1500 | 150 | 150 |
#5 | 8-oscillation | 800 | 30 | 75 |
#6 | 8-oscillation | 800 | 25 | 100 |
Identification | Welding Strategy | PL in W | vF in mm/s | f in Hz | in mm/s | EIn in J | lTrajectory in mm | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
#1 | Linear | 1400 | 400 | - | 400 | 11 | 99 | Figure 5c |
#2 | Linear | 1600 | 500 | - | 500 | 10 | 99 | Figure 5g |
#3 | O-oscillation | 900 | 50 | 50 | 236 | 582 | 153 | Figure 7c |
#4 | O-oscillation | 1500 | 150 | 150 | 707 | 323 | 153 | Figure 7g |
#5 | 8-oscillation | 800 | 30 | 75 | 530 | 838 | 753 | Figure 9c |
#6 | 8-oscillation | 800 | 25 | 100 | 707 | 990 | 565 | Figure 9b |
Identification | Hardness in HV (HV 0.1) |
---|---|
Copper | 58.1 ± 2.9 |
Aluminum | 22.6 ± 1.6 |
Materials | Weld Length | Laser Process | Joint Type | Welding Strategy | Maximum Load | Electrical Contact Resistance | Reference (Year) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
0.2 mm Cu [Ni]/0.3 mm Al | 32 mm | Yb:YAG (2f) λ = 515 nm (cw) | Lap joint (Cu on top) | Linear Oscillating | 880 N | 42 μΩ (Test length 17 mm) | (this work) 2023 |
0.2 mm Al/1 mm Cu | 45 mm | Single-mode fiber (pulsed mode) | Lap joint (Al on top) | Oscillating | 1209 N | 86 μΩ (Test length 40 mm) | [71] 2023 |
0.3 mm Cu/0.4 mm Al | 45 mm | Diode λ = 450 nm (cw) | Lap joint (Cu on top) | Linear | ~670 N | 44 μΩ (Test length 20 mm) | [48] 2022 |
0.3 mm Cu [Ni]/0.45 mm Al | 45 mm | Single-mode fiber (cw) | Lap joint (Cu on top) | Linear | 700–800 N | 40~42 μΩ (Test length 20 mm) | [73] 2022 |
0.4 mm Al/0.3 mm Cu | 45 mm | Single-mode fiber (pulsed mode) | Lap joint (Al on top) | Linear | ~107 kg (1049 N) | N/A | [74] 2019 |
0.3 mm Cu/0.4 mm Al | 45 mm | Single-mode fiber (cw) | Lap joint (Cu or Al on top) | Linear Oscillating | ~130 kgf (1274 N) | N/A | [75] 2019 |
0.3 mm Cu [Ni]/0.45 mm Al | 45 mm | Single-mode fiber (cw) | Lap joint (Cu or Al on top) | Oscillating | ~120 kgf (1177 N) | Low electrical resistance | [43] 2019 |
0.3 mm Cu/0.3 mm Al | 20 mm | Nd:YAG (cw) | Lap joint (Cu on top) | Linear | 539.52 N | N/A | [67] 2014 |
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Kaufmann, F.; Strugulea, M.; Höltgen, C.; Roth, S.; Schmidt, M. Seam Properties of Overlap Welding Strategies from Copper to Aluminum Using Green Laser Radiation for Battery Tab Connections in Electric Vehicles. Materials 2023, 16, 1069. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16031069
Kaufmann F, Strugulea M, Höltgen C, Roth S, Schmidt M. Seam Properties of Overlap Welding Strategies from Copper to Aluminum Using Green Laser Radiation for Battery Tab Connections in Electric Vehicles. Materials. 2023; 16(3):1069. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16031069
Chicago/Turabian StyleKaufmann, Florian, Mihail Strugulea, Christian Höltgen, Stephan Roth, and Michael Schmidt. 2023. "Seam Properties of Overlap Welding Strategies from Copper to Aluminum Using Green Laser Radiation for Battery Tab Connections in Electric Vehicles" Materials 16, no. 3: 1069. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16031069