Glycerol-Based Retrievable Heterogeneous Catalysts for Single-Pot Esterification of Palm Fatty Acid Distillate to Biodiesel
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results and Discussion
2.1. Thermal Degradation Analysis
2.2. Acid Properties Analysis
2.3. Functional Groups of Glycerol-SO3H and Glycero-ClSO3H
2.4. Surface Area and Pore Size Analysis
2.5. X-ray Diffraction Analysis
2.6. Microscopic Surface Morphology of Acidic Glycerol Catalysts
2.7. Catalyst Activity: Experimental Optimization Studies
2.7.1. Catalyst Loading
2.7.2. Reaction Time
2.7.3. Methanol-PFAD Molar Ratio
2.7.4. Reaction Temperature
2.8. Plausible Reaction Mechanism of PFAD Esterification with Produced Acidic Glycerol in Presence of Methanol
2.9. Reusability and Characterization of Spent Catalysts
2.10. Comparison Study of the Esterification by the Sulfonated Catalyst for PFAD Biodiesel Production
3. Materials and Methods
3.1. Chemical Reagents
3.2. Preparation of Acidic Glycerol Catalysts
3.3. Characterizations
3.4. Esterification of Palm Fatty Acid Distillate (PFAD) Using Acidic Glycerol Catalysts
3.5. Biodiesel Yield Analysis
3.6. Catalysts Reusability
3.7. Statistical Analysis
4. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Catalyst | BET Specific Surface Area (m2/g) | Pore Volume (cm3/g) | Average Pore Size (nm) | Total Acidity (mmol/g) | Element (wt.%) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
C | O | S | Cl | |||||
Glycerol-SO3H | 8.85 (1.01) * | 0.07 (0.02) * | 5.28 (5.02) * | 3.43 (1.05) * | 56.3 (66.1) * | 25.7 (25.4) * | 18.0 (8.5) * | - - |
Glycerol-ClSO3H | 4.71 (1.04) * | 0.02 (0.01) * | 5.28 (5.20) * | 3.96 (1.37) * | 48.9 (56.0) * | 32.4 (32.1) * | 16.6 (10.6) * | 2.1 (1.2) * |
Catalyst | BET Specific Surface Area (m2/g) | Acidity (mmol/g) | Reaction Parameters | ReusabilityCycle | Yield (%) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
HSO3/SnO2 | 7.50 | 5.30 | 4 wt.%, 100 °C, 3 h, 9:1 | 5 | 96.4 | [46] |
BSY-SO3H | 889 | 0.58 | 8 wt.%, 65 °C, 3 h, 21:1 | 4 | 87.8 | [39] |
PSS-ICG | 8.70 | 14.64 | 2.5 wt.%, 80 °C, 4 h, 10:1 | - | 96.3 | [47] |
EFB-4BDS | 2.85 | 3.93 | 20 wt.%, 7 h | - | 98.1 | [48] |
Glycerol-SO3H Glycerol-ClSO3H | 8.85 4.71 | 3.43 3.96 | 3 wt.%, 120 °C, 4 h, 18:13 wt.%, 120 °C, 4 h, 18:1 | 3 3 | 96.7 98.2 | This study This study |
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Hazmi, B.; Beygisangchin, M.; Rashid, U.; Mokhtar, W.N.A.W.; Tsubota, T.; Alsalme, A.; Ngamcharussrivichai, C. Glycerol-Based Retrievable Heterogeneous Catalysts for Single-Pot Esterification of Palm Fatty Acid Distillate to Biodiesel. Molecules 2022, 27, 7142. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27207142
Hazmi B, Beygisangchin M, Rashid U, Mokhtar WNAW, Tsubota T, Alsalme A, Ngamcharussrivichai C. Glycerol-Based Retrievable Heterogeneous Catalysts for Single-Pot Esterification of Palm Fatty Acid Distillate to Biodiesel. Molecules. 2022; 27(20):7142. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27207142
Chicago/Turabian StyleHazmi, Balkis, Mahnoush Beygisangchin, Umer Rashid, Wan Nur Aini Wan Mokhtar, Toshiki Tsubota, Ali Alsalme, and Chawalit Ngamcharussrivichai. 2022. "Glycerol-Based Retrievable Heterogeneous Catalysts for Single-Pot Esterification of Palm Fatty Acid Distillate to Biodiesel" Molecules 27, no. 20: 7142. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27207142