Open Access is an initiative that aims to make scientific research freely available to all. To date our community has made over 100 million downloads. It’s based on principles of collaboration, unobstructed discovery, and, most importantly, scientific progression. As PhD students, we found it difficult to access the research we needed, so we decided to create a new Open Access publisher that levels the playing field for scientists across the world. How? By making research easy to access, and puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
We are a community of more than 103,000 authors and editors from 3,291 institutions spanning 160 countries, including Nobel Prize winners and some of the world’s most-cited researchers. Publishing on IntechOpen allows authors to earn citations and find new collaborators, meaning more people see your work not only from your own field of study, but from other related fields too.
To purchase hard copies of this book, please contact the representative in India:
CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd.
www.cbspd.com
|
customercare@cbspd.com
Oxidation has been related to several diseases in humans. Indeed, to protect the body from high free radical damages, organism requires natural resources of antioxidant compounds, such as phenols, tocopherols (α, β, γ, and σ) which have important roles in the cell antioxidant defense system. In Mediterranean areas, olive oils and pepper fruits are considered among the best foods in a diet, which keeps on attracting the interest of scientists due to the health benefits linked with its consumption. The Olive oil and pepper fruits are among the most consumed nutrients in the Mediterranean diet; their richness in naturally powerful antioxidants, such as alpha-tocopherols, polyphenols, carotenoïds, and capsaicinoïds (specific of capsicum species), and monounsaturated fatty acids in olive and seed pepper oils, constitutes good health protection against oxidative damages and inflammation. Also, these phytochemicals shield and prevent the human body from many diseases such as cardiovascular, coronary, Alzheimer’s diseases, and cancers.
*Address all correspondence to: bm_samiatn@yahoo.fr
1. Introduction
In recent years, oxidation constitutes a major problem in human health. Oxygen is considered a vital element, but its instability has deleterious effects on the human body. At high concentration, free radicals cannot gradually be destroyed, their accumulation in the organism generate oxidative stress. This process can damage all cell structures as lipids, proteins, and DNA and trigger many human diseases, such as cancer, arteriosclerosis, and rheumatoid arthritis. Moreover, it may play a role in neurodegenerative diseases and aging processes [1]. Hence, to protect human organisms against reactive oxygen species (ROS) a request for external nutritional intake rich in antioxidants can assist in coping with this oxidative stress. Many studies accorded that dietary vitamin antioxidants and polyphenols have been explored extensively as an exogenous mechanism of defense against oxidative stress [1, 2].
The antioxidants exert their activity by scavenging the ‘free-oxygen radicals’ thereby giving rise to a fairly ‘stable radical’. The human body produces an insufficient level of antioxidants which are essential for preventing oxidative stress. To protect against oxidant radicals, organism requires natural resources of antioxidant compounds from nutrients of different origins. These bioactive molecules play an important role in helping endogenous antioxidants for the neutralization of free radicals. Nutrient antioxidant deficiency is one of the causes of numerous chronic and degenerative pathologies [3].
It has been demonstrated that many vegetables, fruits, medicinal plants, and other foods contain compounds with bioactivity against oxidative stress. This activity has been attributed to vitamin C, vitamin E, α-tocopherol, β-carotene, and polyphenolic compounds [4, 5]. Therefore, research regarding natural antioxidants from foods and plants, particularly from folk medicinal plants, is receiving increasing attention around the world.
In Mediterranean areas, nutrition is specific to each country. The Mediterranean diet takes into account the various religious and cultural traditions, as well as the various national identities, the current needs of Mediterranean populations, respecting regional dietary variations. The Mediterranean model, qualified as a healthy lifestyle [6]. It is considered as a model of sustainable nutrition [7] due to its richness in vegetables, fruits, in a quantity moderate fish, dairy, and meat products, condiments, and spices [8]. In fact, in Mediterranean countries, especially in North Africa, as Tunisia, the diet is based on olive oils, olive derivatives, cereals, Solanaceae species (pepper, tomatoes, potatoes), green vegetables, legumes, fresh and dried fruits. These sources of aliment are rich in macro and micro-nutrient such as fibers, antioxidants (vitamins, polyphenols, carotenoids), oligo-elements. In general, the Mediterranean diet is low in animal fat and fast sugar, but it is rich in fiber, omega 3, and antioxidants. The abundance of fresh fruits and vegetables and the use of olive oil instead of hard fats are key factors for which the Mediterranean diets are renowned. So many researches showed that Mediterranean eating habits appeared to meet all the criteria for a healthy and prudent diet [6, 9, 10].
In addition to macronutrients, humans need vitamins and minerals which are micronutrients required by the body to carry out a range of normal functions. However, these micronutrients are not produced in our bodies and must be derived from the food we eat. Vitamins, such as Vitamin A, B, C, E… are crucial for normal development. These micronutrients protect the organism against many diseases by their antioxidant property. In this context, this work aims to evaluate the richness in antioxidants, especially vitamin E, of the main Mediterranean nutriment olive oils, and pepper and their role in preventing many diseases.
Vitamin E is composed of eight naturally isoforms, four tocopherols with the same molecular formula C28H48O2 (α-, β-, γ-, and σ-tocopherols), and four tocotrienols with a molecular formula C26H38O2 (α-, β-, γ-, and σ-tocotrienols) (Figure 1). These molecules are synthesized by photosynthetic organisms including plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, from homogentisic acid and phytyl-diphosphate or farnesyl-diphosphate reaction in plastid membranes [11]. All homologs are derivatives of 6-chromanol and differ in the number and position of methyl groups on the ring structure. The four tocopherol homologs have a saturated 16-carbon phytyl side chain. Whereas, the tocotrienols homologs have three double bonds on the side chain. The tocopherols and tocotrienols have the same basic chemical structure; the main difference is in the saturation of the aliphatic side chain attached to the chromanol ring [12, 13] (Figure 1). The various isoforms are not interchangeable and only α-tocopherol meets the human vitamin E requirements [14].
Figure 1.
Chemical structure of different isoforms of vitamin E [13].
The reaction of aromatic chromanol ring with phytyl-diphosphate or farnesyl-diphosphate, in plastid membranes, synthesize different isomers of tocopherol or tocotrienol.
Vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin that exists in different chemical forms. The most active compound is alpha-tocopherol which existed in natural and synthetic forms. The natural vitamin E (RRR-α-tocopherol or D-α-tocopherol) consists of a single stereoisomer. While, synthetic vitamin E is a mixture of eight stereoisomers (RRR, RSR, RSS, RRS, SRR, SRS, SSR, SSS) distributed equally (Figure 2). Only one of them (1/8th) has a molecular structure identical to that of the natural vitamin. According to many studies, the natural vitamin E is twice as powerful and fixed twice as good as the synthetic version. This means that natural vitamin E reaches the blood and organs at least twice as good as synthetic ones [13, 14].
Figure 2.
Natural and synthetic Sterio-isoforms of vitamin E [14].
The stereoisomer S and R are the spatial arrangements of the alpha-tocopherol; The RRR refers to R at the 2,4 and 8 positions, hence RRR-α-tocopherol which correspond to Natural vitamin E. The synthetic Vitamin E agree to eight stereoisomers S and/or R at positions 2, 4 and 8.
2.2 Biological properties of vitamin E in the human body
Vitamin E is considered a natural phytochemical that is frequently associated with human health [15]. This vitamin is an example of a phenolic antioxidant; it serves as an antioxidant and protects membrane lipids from oxidative degeneration [16]. Therefore, both lipophilicity and membrane localization of vitamin E explain its antioxidant property. In this context, the incorporation of vitamin E into the cell membrane explained their major biologic role to protect polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and other components of cell membranes and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) from oxidation by free radicals. Via their localization, within the phospholipid bilayer of cell membranes; It is particularly effective in preventing lipid peroxidation, a series of chemical reactions involving the oxidative deterioration of PUFAs [14].
Vitamin E under the term α-tocopherol is a powerful biological antioxidant. It is the major lipid-soluble component in the cell antioxidant defense system and is exclusively obtained from the diet. Among the eight isomers, The RRR-α-tocopherol is the most isoform of vitamin E that is essential for humans and is preferentially retained within the organism [14, 17, 18]. This is explained in part by the specific selection of RRR-α-tocopherol by the α-tocopherol transfer protein and in part by its low rate of degradation and elimination compared with the other vitamers, especially tocotrienols, which are rapidly metabolized and excreted similarly as other xenobiotics [14]. Also, [19] mentioned that γ-Tocopherol is slightly less efficient than α-tocopherol as a scavenger of oxygen radicals, but it is an efficient scavenger of reactive nitrogen species due to the unsubstituted 5-position on the chromanol ring. This isomer of Tocopherol is present in significant amounts in the human diet especially in several widely consumed vegetable oils [14].
This form is considered the most important fat-soluble antioxidant in humans metabolizing peroxyl radicals [19]. Such molecules readily donate the hydrogen from the hydroxyl (-OH) group on the ring structure to free radicals, which then become unreactive. On donating the hydrogen, the phenolic compound itself becomes a relatively unreactive free radical because the unpaired electron on the oxygen atom is usually delocalized into the aromatic ring structure thereby increasing its stability [14].
The potent lipid-soluble antioxidant property of α-tocopherol is to maintain the integrity of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in the membranes of cells and thus maintain their bioactivity [20]. The α-tocopherol protects the peroxidation of unsaturated fatty acids of the cell membrane. When peroxyl radicals (ROO•) are formed, these react 1000-times faster with vitamin E (Vit E-OH) than with polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA: ROOH) [21]. The hydroxyl (OH) group in the chromanol head of α-tocopherol can donate hydrogen to scavenge lipid peroxyl radicals (ROO•) generated from the peroxidation of the lipids to form the corresponding lipid hydroperoxide and the tocopheryl radical (Vit E-O•). The tocopheryl radical (Vit E-O•) reacts with vitamin C, thereby oxidizing the latter and returning vitamin E to its reduced state. The presence of other antioxidants such as vitamin C is required to regenerate the antioxidant capacity of α-tocopherol (Figure 3).
Figure 3.
The antioxidant property of Vitamin E and its regeneration by other antioxidants “Vitamin E recycling”. Vitamin E-OH: alpha-tocopherol; Vitamin E-O.: tocopheryl radical; NADP: nicotinamide adenine diphosphate; NADPH: reduced NADP. The peroxidation of unsaturated lipids leads to forming lipid peroxyl radicals (ROO·). α-tocopherol easily diffuses into cell membranes, due to its lipophilic nature, and scavenges rapidly, with a hydroxyl group, the lipid peroxyl radicals and protects polyunsaturated fatty acids from lipid peroxidation. The redox reaction between tocopherol and harmful lipid peroxide radicals leads to forming neutral lipid hydroperoxide and an unreactive vitamin E radical (Vitamin E-O.). The presence of other antioxidants, such as vitamin C, is required to regenerate the antioxidant capacity of α-tocopherol.
The interaction of vitamins E and C has led to the idea of “vitamin E recycling”, where the antioxidant function of oxidized vitamin E is continuously restored by other antioxidants (Figure 3).
The Mediterranean diet (MedDi) is characterized by a high content of bioactive phytochemicals especially the antioxidants such as polyphenols, carotenoids, vitamins C and E which are key components of many plant foods. These bioactive compounds in (MedDi) have a particular interest in the prevention of many diseases such as cancer, cardiovascular diseases, etc. [22]. Also, the major dietary sources of vitamin E are fruits, vegetables, nuts, and oils. Vitamin E is known to inhibit lipid peroxidation eventually protecting DNA from damage involved in the pathogenesis of cancer [23].
Antioxidants from our diet play an important role in helping endogenous antioxidants for neutralizing free radical species. Thus, free radicals are involved in some diseases including tumor inflammation, hemorrhagic shock, atherosclerosis, diabetes, infertility, gastrointestinal ulcerogenesis, asthma, rheumatoid arthritis, cardiovascular disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, etc. [24, 25].
By its natural antioxidant property, vitamin E plays a key role in maintaining health and preventing many chronic and degenerative diseases [26]. In fact, vitamin E could help avoid or delay coronary heart disease, it could also prevent atherosclerosis by inhibits or reduces the oxidation of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol which is associated with the development of atherosclerosis [27]. Also, the supplement of this nutrient plays a cardioprotective role and decreases cardiovascular events [28, 29], and avoids the formation of blood clots that could lead to a heart attack or venous thromboembolism [30]. Nutrient antioxidant deficiency is one of the causes of numerous chronic and degenerative pathologies [1].
Among the different forms of vitamin E, alpha-tocopherol constitutes the most biologically active form and is preferentially absorbed and retained in the body. It has anti-inflammatory, antiplatelet, and vasodilator properties with which vitamin E enhances the immune system presents the capacity to promote health, prevents and treats many diseases [29, 31]. Also, due to its natural properties to be fat-soluble and to incorporate into biological membranes, alpha-tocopherol prevents protein oxidation and inhibits lipid peroxidation, thereby maintaining cell membrane integrity and protecting the cell against damage [32]. Alpha-tocopherol also modulates the expression of various genes, plays a key role in neurological function, inhibits platelet aggregation, and enhances vasodilatation. Many researches showed that the supplementation of vitamin E (200–400 mg/day) may be suitable to moderate some aspects of degenerative diseases such as Parkinson’s disease, reduce tissue injury arising from ischaemia and reperfusion during surgery, delay cataract development, and improve mobility in arthritis sufferers [33].
Olive fruits and olive oils are considered excellent Mediterranean nutriments. Their consumption in the Mediterranean diet (MedDi) constitutes the cause of many health-promoting effects. The olive oils are characterized by their richness in oleic acid, vitamin E, polyphenols, and some other minor components some of which are known to be anti-inflammatory, make it the model functional food [34]. Olive oils, virgin, and extra virgin are a symbol of the Mediterranean Diet. Alpha-tocopherol was the most abundant tool and detected in all the studied olive oil samples [35]. Many research proved that the levels of tocopherols in olive oils are high variety and geographic areas-dependent.
The alpha-tocopherol is more active than others β > γ > δ against free radicals. It protects free fatty acids from peroxidation. The tocopherol radicals are resonance stabilized within the chromanol ring and do not propagate the chain reactions or are rapidly recycled back to the corresponding tocopherol, allowing each tocopherol to participate in many peroxidation chain-breaking events. One tocopherol molecule can protect about 103–108 polyunsaturated fatty acids at low peroxide values [36]. According to [37], α-tocopherol represented almost 95% of total tocopherols and their contribution is greater than the rest of tocopherols; their content in virgin olive oils varies from 97 to 785 mg/kg. In fact, α-tocopherol concentration ranges from 170 to 485 mg/kg in Spanish varieties [37]; 160 to 428 mg/kg in the Argentinean oils [38]; 98–370 mg/kg in the Greek oils [37], 97–403 mg/kg in oils from Turkey [39], 120–478 mg/kg in oils from Tunisia [40], and 138–298 mg/kg in the Portuguese oils [41] (Table 1).
Countries
Varieties
Total Tocopherol (mg/kg)
α- tocopherol (mg/kg)
References
Spain
Arbequina Morisca Picual Manzanilla-cacerena Corniche Verdial de Badajoz Carrasquena
Total tocopherols and α-tocopherol composition in olive oils of different varieties from Mediterranean countries.
4.2 Effect of olive oils in many diseases
Olive oil is the main source of fats in Mediterranean diets. This type of diet has often been associated with improving the resistance to certain diseases, including cardiovascular disease and illness degenerative. Many scientific studies have focused on the nutritional aspect of olive oil to understand the mechanisms of this phenomenon. The first explanation is its specific fatty acid composition. The proportion of saturated fatty acids is very low (14%); while the majority of monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) is oleic acid. Essential polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) are also present in interesting proportions in the oil. MUFA supplement allows to increase the resistance of LDL to oxidation [50], thus reducing one of the factors that can cause coronary heart disease [9].
The Extra Virgin Olive Oil (EVOO) is one of the most important health-protective foods in the Mediterranean diet [51]. The high-quality EVOO is considered as a true pharm-food. This oil contains a relevant concentration of efficient chemo-preventive molecules, including Tyrosol, hydroxytyrosol, tocopherols (vitamin E), β-carotene, and phenolic compounds [51, 52]. [53] showed the ability of VOO phenolic compounds to shield lipoproteins from oxidation and to reduce systolic blood pressure in hypertensive individuals. These antioxidants compounds are thought to be beneficial to protect against neurodegenerative diseases and cardiovascular diseases [54]. Also, [27] suggested that the antioxidants compounds in EVOO can prevent and treat cancers, diabetes, neurodegenerative diseases, inflammation, and aging. They have an antimicrobial property and also play an important role in strengthening the immune system and protecting certain tissues and organs from damage. The presence of phenolic compounds and tocopherols in Extra Virgin Olive Oil (EVOO) protects the unsaturated fatty acids from peroxidation, thus contributes to the stability of cellular brain structures [51, 55] and it has beneficial effects on learning and memory [55]. The phenolic compound and tocopherols have often been linked to reducing the risk of cognitive decline and are essential for proper brain function.
Pepper is a very important vegetable worldwide and has economic and agro-food importance in many countries. In the Mediterranean, pepper is cultivated in the warm regions particularly in Tunisia where its cultivation has spread due to its strong uses in Tunisian cuisine. Pepper fruits were appreciated and consumed mostly as fresh food or dried as a spice. The nutritional contribution due to the presence of beneficial healthy-related compounds, Pepper is among the most fascinating and consumed spice foods, largely appreciated for its flavor, high nutritional and health contribution to human diets [56].
Pepper is a usual part of a traditional Mediterranean diet. Hot peppers are intensively used as food additives for their pungency, aroma, and color [57]. Their consumption is nutritionally valuable and also contains ingredients that promote health. The presence of phytochemicals and antioxidants in fruits increases its importance in controlling diseases to protect the human body from the harmful effects of free radicals [58]. Therefore, integrating a pepper-rich diet in our daily meals can prevent cardiovascular diseases, could help in fighting blood cholesterol levels, and can have, by capsaicin, an antidiabetic activity [58, 59].
5.2 Antioxidants in pepper fruits
Pepper fruits are recognized for their richness in phytochemicals and antioxidants with high nutritional value. The fruits are considered an excellent source of macro and micro-nutrients such as provitamin A, vitamins C and E, carotenoïds, capsaicinoïds, minerals, polyphenols, phytosterol, metabolites with famous antioxidant properties that positively affect human health [60, 61, 62]. These phytochemicals are influenced by a variety of peppers and environmental factors. The analysis of 23 accessions of peppers, collected from multiple Peruvian locations, showed that the tocopherols varied strongly from 0.23 to 29.1 mg/100 g, the total polyphenols between 0.97 and 2.77 g gallic acid equivalents (GAE)/100 g and the concentrations of capsaicinoïds range from 1.0 mg/100 g to 1515.5 mg/100 g (GAE)/100 g [63]. So, the consumption of pepper fruits and integrating a pepper-rich diet into our daily meals can be helpful in the continuing quest to combating micronutrient deficiency [64].
Peppers are considered one of the best sources of natural vitamin E and C. Many studies showed that the level of α-tocopherol in dry red pepper powder is similar to those in spinach and asparagus and four-fold higher than that in dry tomatoes [64]. The recommended daily intake of vitamin E was 15 mg/day of α-tocopherol for both women and men. Pepper fruits can supply above 100% α-tocopherol per 100 g serving depending on the cultivar [61]. Also, the red pepper seed oils showed a high antioxidant capacity due to their richness in bioactive phytochemical compounds such as polyphenols, carotenoids, tocopherols, phytosterols, and unsaturated fatty acids especially the linoleic acids which are higher than those of oleaginous seed oils [62]. It has been reported that polyphenols and tocopherol were the predominant antioxidant compounds in red pepper seed oils; Which γ-tocopherol was the main tocopherol at 278.65 mg/100 g seed oil, followed by alpha-tocopherol and delta-tocopherol [62]. The ratio between α- and γ-tocopherol depends on the number of seeds in the chili powder. As a matter of fact, the amount of α-tocopherol in the pericarp is higher, however, γ-tocopherol is more dominating in the seeds [63].
Hot pepper fruits are rich in capsaicinoïds, unique compounds of Capsicum species, which are responsible for the pungency. Capsaicin is widely influenced by the variety and maturity stages and by environmental factors [65]. These alcaloïds have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic properties and are characterized by great medical and pharmacological values [58, 66]. These molecules also have a therapeutic effect as a neuropharmacological tool. Their effect in the treatment of painful conditions has been evaluated, such as rheumatic diseases [66]. Many recent studies have shown the effective treatment of capsaicinoïds for several sensory nerve fiber disorders, including arthritis and human immunodeficiency virus [67]. In this context, the proposed diet rich in pepper fruits can be considered an excellent strategy to improve the nutritional value of the population due to its high antioxidants and phenolic compound content.
The pepper fruits and olive oil constitute an excellent nutrient, for their richness in antioxidants (Figure 4). Since these Mediterranean foods have an important effect on human health, it is encouraged, around the world, to consume them.
Figure 4.
Graphical abstract of the main antioxidants commonly present in olive oils and pepper fruits, characteristic of the Mediterranean diet, such as phenolic compounds, carotenoids, tocopherols and oleic acid. The capsaicin is specific to capsicum species, which have anti-inflammatory properties.
The Mediterranean diet is rich in nutrients that have antioxidant properties. Particularly olive oil and pepper fruits constitute the most abundant and consumed vegetable nutriments in MedDi areas. Their richness in polyphenols, tocopherols, carotenoids, chlorophylls, unsaturated fatty acids, olive oils constitute a health treasure. These minor components are known to prevent and protect the human organism against many diseases such as cardiovascular, coronary diseases; also, some of these antioxidants have anti-inflammatory action, make it the model functional food. Pepper fruits are mostly consumed by the Mediterranean population as traditional spices and food products. Fruits are characterized by a means of antioxidants such as vitamin A alpha and gamma tocopherols, vitamin C, capsaicinoïds, polyphenols. The consumption of both nutriments rich in natural powerful antioxidants, such as tocopherols and polyphenols, constitutes a good strategy for reducing oxidative damage and to improve the health state of the human body, and preventing it from diseases.
This work was supported by the Laboratory of Amelioration of the Olive Tree Productivity and Product Quality. The author is grateful to all the members of the olive Tree institute.
The authors declare no conflict of interest for this chapter.
References
1.Pham-Huy LA, He H and Pham-Huy C. Free Radicals, Antioxidants in Disease and Health. Int J Biomed Sci. 2008; 4(2): 89-96
2.Billingsley H and Carbone S. The antioxidant potential of the Mediterranean diet in patients at high cardiovascular risk: an in-depth review of the Predimed. Nutrition and Diabetes. 2018; 8:13. DOI 10.1038/s41387-018-0025-1
3.Lobo VA, Patil A, Phata K, and Chandra N. Free radicals, antioxidants and functional foods: Impact on human health. Pharmacognosy Reviews. 2010; 4 (8): 118-126. DOI:10.4103/0973-7847.70902
4.Krishnaiah D, Sarbatly R and Nithyanandam R. A review of the antioxidant potential of medicinal plant species. Food and Bioproducts Processing. 2011; 89: 217-233
5.Moure A, Jose M, Daniel C, Franco J, Domı́nguez, M, Sineiro J, Domı́nguez H, Núñez JM, Parajó JC. Natural antioxidants from residual sources. Food Chemistry. 2001; 72 (2):145-171. DOI: 10.1016/S0308-8146(00)00223-5
6.El-Sabban F. The antioxidant advantage of the Mediterranean diet in cardiovascular disease. Nutrition and Dietary Supplements. 2014; 6:35-40. DOI:10.2147/NDS.S59848
7.González-Turmo I. Chapter 5: The Mediterranean Diet: consumption, cuisine and food habits. In: MediTERRA-CIHEAM, SciencesPo Les Presses Paris. 2012, p. 115-132. DOI: 10.3917/scpo.chea.2012.02
8.Sikalidis AK, Kelleher AH and Kristo AS. Mediterranean Diet. Encyclopedia. 2021; 1: 371-387. DOI:10.3390/encyclopedia1020031
9.Gerber M and Hoffman R. The Mediterranean Diet: Health, sciences and society. British Journal of Nutrition. 2015; 113, S4-S10. DOI:10.1017/S0007114514003912
10.Boskou D. Chapter 13: Mediterranean food products: research and development. In: MediTERRA-CIHEAM, Presses de Sciences Po editors, 2012 p. 265-282. DOI:10.3917/scpo.chea.2012.02
11.Fritsche S, Wang X and Jung C. Recent Advances in our Understanding of Tocopherol Biosynthesis in Plants: An Overview of Key Genes, Functions, and Breeding of Vitamin E Improved Crops, Antioxidants. 2017; 6(99):1-18. DOI: 10.3390/antiox6040099
12.Rizvi S, Raza ST, Ahmed F, Ahmad A, Abbas S, and Mahdi F. The Role of Vitamin E in Human Health and Some Diseases. Sultan Qaboos Univ Med J. 2014; 14(2): e157–e165
13.Springett GM, Husain K, Neuger A, Centeno B, Chen DT, Hutchinson TZ, Lush RM, Sebti S, Malafa MP. A Phase I Safety, Pharmacokinetic, and Pharmacodynamic Presurgical Trial of Vitamin E δ-tocotrienol in Patients with Pancreatic Ductal Neoplasia. E BioMedicine. 2015; 2(12):1987-1995. DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2015.11.025
14.Brigelius-Flohe R. Bioactivity of vitamin E. Nutr. Res. Rev. 2006, 19: 174-186. DOI: 10.1017/S0954422407202938
15.Epriliati I and Ginjom I. Chapter 9: Bioavailability of Phytochemicals. In: Venketeshwer R Editor, Phytochemicals - A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health. InTechOpen; 2012 401-428. DOI:10.5772/26702
16.Dhalaria R, Verma R, Kumar D, Puri S, Tapwal A, Kumar V, Nipovimova E and Kuca K. Bioactive Compounds of Edible Fruits with Their Anti-Aging Properties: A comprehensive Review to Prolong Human Life. Antioxidants. 2020; 9 (1123): 1-38. doi:10.3390/antiox9111123
17.Clarke MW, Burnett JR and Croft KD. Vitamin E in Human Health and Disease. Critical Reviews in Clinical Laboratory Sciences. 2008; 45(5): 417-450
18.World Health Organization/Food and Nutrition Division (FAO/WHO). Vitamin E: human vitamin and mineral requirements, FAO Rome. 2001; Pp. 291-325
19.Raederstorff D, Wyss A, Calder PC, Weber P and Eggersdorfer M. Vitamin E function requirements in relation to PUFA. British Journal of Nutrition. 2015; 114: 1113-1122
20.Traber MG and Atkinson J. Vitamin E, antioxidant and nothing more. Free radical biology and medicine. 2007; 43 (1), 4-15
21.Buettner GR. The pecking order of free radicals and antioxidants: Lipid-peroxidation, α-tocopherol, and ascorbate. Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics. 1993; 300: 535-543. DOI:10.1006/abbi.1993.1074
22.Lopez-Guarnido O, Urquiza-Salvata N, Saiza M, Lozano-Paniaguaa D, Rodrigo L, Gelerc Pascual M, Lorentea J A, Alvarez-Cubero M J and Rivas A. Bioactive compounds of the Mediterranean diet and prostate cancer. The aging male. 2018; 21(4): 251-260
23.Wright ME, Weinstein SJ, Lawson KA, et al. Supplemental and dietary vitamin E intakes and risk of prostate cancer in a large prospective study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2007;16: 1128-1135
24.Chen FW, Shieh P, Kuo D, Hsieh C. Evaluation of the antioxidant activity of Ruellia tuberosa. Food Chemistry. 2006; 94:14-18
25.Uddin SN, Akond MA, Mubassara S, Yesmin MN. Antioxidants and antibacterial activities of Trema cannabina. Middle East Journal of antimicrobial Agents. 2008; 14: 327-335
26.Doughari JH. Chapter 1: Phytochemicals: Extraction Methods, Basic Structures and Mode of Action as Potential Chemotherapeutic Agents. In: Venketeshwer R Edition, Phytochemicals - A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health. IntechOpen, 2012; 1-34. DOI: 10.5772/26052
27.Benlemlih M and Ghanem J. Polyphenols d’huile d’olive, tresor santé ! Polyphenol aux actions antioxydantes, anti-inflamatoires, anticancereuses, anti-veillissement et protectrices cardio-vasculaires. Deuxième editions, Medicatrix, Belgique, 2016; 208. ISBN 978-2-87211-159-6
28.Sesso HD, Buring JE, Christen WG, et al. Vitamins E and C in the prevention of cardiovascular disease in men: the Physicians’ Health Study II randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2008; 300: 2123-2133
29.Ziegler M, Wallert M, Lorkowski S and Peter K. Cardiovascular and Metabolic Protection by Vitamin E: A Matter of Treatment Strategy? Antioxidants (Basel). 2020; 9(10): 935.DOI: 10.3390/antiox9100935
30.Jaffe R. Cardioprotective nutrient. In: Watson RR and Preedy VR Editors, Bioactive food as dietary interventions for cardiovascular disease. 1st edition, Elsevier, 2013; p. 103-120
31.Blumberg JB. Vitamin E supplementation and heart disease. Nutrition in Clinical Care. 2002; 5(2):50-55. DOI:10.1046/j.1523-5408.2002.00003.x
32.Leskovec J, Levart A, Nemec Svete A, Perić L, Đukić Stojčić M, Žikić D, Salobir J, Rezar V. Effects of supplementation with α-tocopherol, ascorbic acid, selenium, or their combination in lin seed oil-enriched diets on the oxidative status in broilers. Poult. Sci. 2018; 97: 1641-1650
33.Packer L. Vitamin E: Biological activity and Health Benefits: Overview. In: Packer L, Fuchs J, Dekker M editors, Vitamin E in health and disease. 1993; p. 977-982
34.Perona JS and Botham KM. Olive Oil as a Functional Food: Nutritional and Health Benefits. In: Aparicio, Harwood J. Handbook of Olive Oil, Springer, 2nd editions. 2013; pp. 677-714|
35.Dagdelen A, Tumen G, Ozcan MM and Dundar E. Determination of tocopherol contents of some olive varieties harvested at different ripening periods. Natural Product Research. 2012; 26 (15), 1454-1457. DOI:10.1080/14786419.2011.605364
36.Špika MJ, Kraljić K and Škevin D. Tocopherols: Chemical Structure, Bioactivity, and Variability in Croatian Virgin Olive Oils. In: Dimitrios Boskou and Maria Lisa Clodoveo editors, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/64658
37.Franco MN, Galeano-Díaz T, Sánchez J, De Miguel C and Martín-Vertedor D. Total Phenolic Compounds and Tocopherols Profiles of Seven Olive Oil Varieties Grown in the South-West of Spain. Journal of Oleo Sciences. 2014; 63, (2) 000-000. DOI: 10.5650/jos.ess13098
38.Ceci LN and Carelli AA. Characterization of Monovarietal Argentinian Olive Oils from New Productive Zones. Journal of the American Oil Chemist’s Society. 2007; 84(12): 1125-1136. DOI:10.1007/s11746-007-1140-7
39.Arslan D, Karabekir Y, Schreiner M. Variations of phenolic compounds, fatty acids and some qualitative characteristics of Sarıulak olive oil as induced by growing area. Food Res Int. 2013; 54 (2):1897-1906. DOI:10.1016/j.foodres.2013.06.016
40.Baccouri O, Guerfel M, Baccouri B, Cerretani L, Bendini A, Lercker G, Zarrouk M, Daoud B, Miled D. Chemical composition and oxidative stability of Tunisian Monovarietal virgin olive oils with regard to fruit ripening. Food Chemistry. 2008; 109(4):743-754. DOI:10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.01.034
41.Matos LC, Cunha SC, Amaral JS, Pereira JA, Andrade PB, Seabra RM, Oliveira BP. Chemometric characterization of three varietal olive oils (Cvs. Cobrançosa, Madural and Verdeal Transmontana) extracted from olives with different maturation indices. Food Chem. 2007;102(1):406-414. DOI:10.1016/j.foodchem.2005.12.031
42.Mikrou T, Pantelidou E, Parasyri N, Papaioannou A, Kapsokefalou M, Gardeli C and Mallouchos A. Varietal and Geographical Discrimination of Greek Monovarietal Extra Virgin Olive Oils Based on Squalene, Tocopherol, and Fatty Acid Composition. Molecules, 2020; 25 (3818): 1-14. DOI:10.3390/molecules25173818
43.Najafi V, Barzegar M, Sahari M. Physicochemical Properties and Oxidative Stability of Some Virgin and Processed Olive Oils. Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology. 2015; 17(4): 847-858
44.Ben Temime S, Baccouri B, Taamalli W, Abaza L, Daoud D, Zarrouk M. Location effects on oxidative stability of chétoui virgin olive oil. Journal of Food Biochemistry. 2006; 30 (6): 659-670. DOI: 10.1111/j.1745-4514.2006.00086.x
45.Laroussi-Mezghani S, Le Dréau Y, Molinet J, Hammami M, Grati-Kamoun N, Artaud J. Biodiversity of Tunisian virgin olive oils: varietal origin classification according to their minor compounds. Eur. Food Res. Technol. 2016; 242:1087-1099
46.Sakouhi F, Harrabi S, Absalon C, Sbei K, Boukhchina S, Kallel H. α-Tocopherol and fatty acids contents of some Tunisian table olives (Olea europaea L.): Changes in their composition during ripening and processing. Food Chemistry. 2008;108: 833-839
47.Krichene D, Taamalli W, Daoud D, Salvador MD, Fregapane G, Zarrouk M. Phenolic compounds, tocopherols and other minor components in virgin olive oils of some Tunisian varieties. Journal of Food Biochemistry. 2007; 31 (2): 179-194. DOI:10.1111/j.1745-4514.2007.00107
48.Haddam M, Chimi H and Amine A. Formulation d’une huile d’olive de bonne qualité. Oilseeds and fats, Crops and Lipids. 2014; 21(5): 2-10
49.Bendi Djelloul MC, Amrani SM, Rovellini P, Chenoune R. Phenolic compounds and fatty acids content of some West Algerian olive oils. Communicata Scientiae. 2020, 1: 1-11. DOI : 10.14295/cs.v11i0.3247
50.Bonanome A, Pagnan A, Biffanti S. Effect of Dietary Monounsaturated and Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids on the Susceptibility of Plasma Low-Density Lipoproteins to Oxidative Modification. Arterioscler Thromb. 1992; 12: 529-533. DOI :10.1161/01.ATV.12.4.529
51.Lanza B and Ninfali P. Antioxidants in Extra Virgin Olive Oil and Table Olives: Connections between Agriculture and Processing for Health Choices. Antioxidants. 2020; 9 (41): 1-17. DOI:10.3390/antiox9010041
52.Rocha J, Borges N and Pinho O. Table olives and health. Journal of Nutritional Science. 2020; 9(e57): 1-16. doi:10.1017/jns.2020.50
53.Castellano JM and Perona JS. Effects of virgin olive oil phenolic compounds on health: solid evidence or just another fiasco? Grasas y Aceites. 2021; 72(2): e404. DOI: 10.3989/gya.0217201
54.Aridi YS, Walker JL, Wright ORL. The association between the Mediterranean dietary pattern and cognitive health: A systematic review. Nutrients. 2017; 9 (674): 1-23. DOI.org/10.3390/nu9070674
55.Nilsson M. Effects of the Mediterranean diet on brain function: Underlying mechanisms [Bachelor Degree Project]. University of Skovde; 2019
56.Tripodi P, Schiavi M, Lo Scalzo R. Multi-Scale Evaluation on Two Locations and Digital Fruit Imaging Highlight Morpho-Agronomic Performances and Antioxidant Properties in Chili Pepper Hybrids. Agronomy. 2021; 11(805):1-12. DOI:10.3390/agronomy11040805
57.Saha S, Walia S, Kundu A, Kaur C, Singh J and Sisodia R. Capsaicinoids, Tocopherol, and Sterols Content in Chili (Capsicum sp.) by Gas Chromatographic-Mass Spectrometric Determination. International Journal of Food Properties. 2015; 18(7): 1535-1545. DOI: 10.1080/10942912.2013.833222
58.Motukuri K and Jaswanthi N. Chapter 1-9: Hot Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.): An Alternative Food to Reduce Micronutrient Deficiencies in Human. In book Capsicum. 2020. DOI:10.5772/intechopen.92198
59.Bonaccio M, Di Castelnuovo A, Costanzo S, Ruggiero E, De Curtis A, Persichillo M, Tabolacci C, Facchiano F, Cerletti C, Donati MB, De Gaetano G, Iacoviello L. Chili Pepper Consumption and Mortality in Italian Adults, J Am Coll Cardiol. 2019, 74 (25): 3139-3149. DOI: 10.1016/j.jacc.2019.09.068
60.Materska M and Perucka I. Antioxidant activity of the main phenolic compounds isolated from hot pepper fruit (Capsicum annuum L.). Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry. 2005; 53(5): 1750-1756. DOI:10.1021/jf035331k
61.Wahyuni Y, Ballester AR, Sudarmonowati E, Bino RJ and Bovy AG. Secondary Metabolites of Capsicum Species and Their Importance in the Human Diet. J. of Natural Products. 2013; 76 (4):783-793. DOI:10.1021/np300898z
62.Chouaibi M, Rezigc L, Hamdic S, Ferrari G. Chemical characteristics and compositions of red pepper seed oils extracted by different methods, Industrial Crops & Products. 2019; 128: 363-370
63.Meckelmann SW, Riegel DW, van Zonneveld M, RíosL, Peña K, Mueller-Seitz E and Petz M. Capsaicinoids, flavonoids, tocopherols, antioxidant capacity and color attributes in 23 native Peruvian chili peppers (Capsicum spp.) grown in three different locations. European Food Research and Technology. 2014; 240 (2): 273-283.DOI: 10.1007/s00217-014-2325-6
64.Olatunji TL and Afolayan AJ. The suitability of Chili pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) for alleviating human micronutrient dietary deficiencies. Food Sci Nutr. 2018; 6: 2239-2251. Doi:10.1002/fsn3.790
65.Ben Mansour-Gueddes S, Tarchoun N, Teixeira Da Silva JA and Saguem S. Agronomic and Chemical Evaluation of Seven Hot Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) Populations Grown in an Open Field. Fruit, Vegetable and Cereal Science and Biotechnology, Global Science Books. 2010; 4(1): 93-97
66.Antonious GF. Chapter 2: Capsaicinoids and Vitamins in Hot Pepper and Their Role in Disease Therapy. In: Handbook of Capsaicin and its Human Therapeutic Development. Kentucky State University, Frankfort, KY, USA, 2018; 13-40. DOI.org/10.5772/intechopen.78243
67.Cvetkovi CT, Ranilovi CJ, Gajari D, Tomic-Obrdalj H, Šubari CD, Moslavac T, Cikoš AM and Joki CS. Podravka and Slavonka Varieties of Pepper Seeds (Capsicum annuum L.) as a New Source of Highly Nutritional Edible Oil. Foods. 2020; 9 (1262): 1-21. DOI:10.3390/foods9091262
Written By
Samia Ben Mansour-Gueddes and Dhouha Saidana-Naija
Submitted: 01 October 2020Reviewed: 30 July 2021Published: 06 October 2021
Open access peer-reviewed chapter
